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Education is one of the basic requirements of every human being and constitutes an important parameter of the strategy of human resource development. In fact, education has been regarded both as the end in itself and as a means which both individuals and societies can use to direct the process of change and development towards the desired goals. It helps to develop the personality, rationality and innate qualities of an individual by providing necessary knowledge and skills which are needed to participate effectively as member of society and contribute towards the development of shared values and common identity. Education is a continuous and creative process which improves the socio-economic status of an individual and brings success in life. In other words, quality education not only makes an individual intelligent and knowledgeable but also helps to lead a good, honorable and self-sufficing life. In view of Mahatma Gandhi, “education means an all-round drawing out of the best in the human body, mind and spirit”. Thus, needless to acknowledge that education is a major aspect of human development of any modern society. Indeed, education is the best investment for the people because well educated people are generally found to be more conscious as well as capable of diagnosing their own rights and opportunities, enjoy more respect and can effectively contribute to the development of their family, community, society as well as the state. So far as women empowerment and development is concerned many studies already unveiled the fact that education is the first step towards women empowerment. Empowerment of women generally implies the process of giving equal status to women; equal access to resources; equal opportunity and freedom to develop themselves and most importantly giving equal power to participate in the process of decision making in all spheres of life. According to the Country Report of the Government of India empowerment means moving from a weak position to execute a power. Thus, among other development indexes, education is the most important one used as a yardstick for measuring social growth. Particularly, it is the milestone and the starting point of women empowerment. It is so because education empowers women by improving their functional ability and level of confidence which in turn enables them to resist the injustices against them and protect themselves from violence and exploitation. education is the most powerful key which helps women to respond to the challenges, to confront their traditional role and change their life and position. It not only helps in the development of half of the human resources but also functions as a means of decision-making power which in turn helps in raising the status of women and their role within the family as well as in the society. Thus, education not only develops abilities but also brings self confidence among women and opens up new opportunities that will enable them to be a part in the decision-making process which will, in turn, help in their development and empowerment. Moreover, women education is very essential because when a woman is educated, the benefit is shared by the entire family, community, society as well as the state. According to an American survey (N.L. Mishra 2000) the more educated the mother, it will be the easier for the children to win higher diplomas. The famous proverb the hand that rocks the cradle rules the world goes right in the case of a well-educated mother. Educated women not only tend to promote education and better guidance to their children and family, but also can help in the reduction of infant mortality rate and growth of the population. Besides, women education is associated with the increase of women’s participation in the labor force and their contributions to the public and private sectors. Thus, in brief, women education helps to secure social equality and human development, higher economic productivity and a tolerant democratic society. Therefore, through the promotion of education among women, we can narrow down the prevailing gender inequality and accelerate the process of socio-economic and political changes in the status of women leading to their development. Long ago Plato recognized the importance of education and thus regarded it as one of the two, the other being communism, great institutions of his Ideal State. In-fact, Plato was the feminist whose theory of education clearly postulates the equal education of both the sexes. The paradox, however, is that women throughout the world have been denied equal educational rights and opportunities subjected to gender discrimination. The hegemonic masculine ideology and other social taboos made them suffer a lot as they were denied equal educational rights and opportunities in different parts of the world. Nevertheless, the 19th century could well be called an age for women empowerment and development. There has been a universal consensus on the empowerment of women and the rise of social reform movements were started showing its effects. Particularly the feminist movements have raised women’s aspirations and brought significant changes in the condition of women through out the world though the process is rather gradual and not dramatic. In-fact, the movement for improving women’s status all over the world has always emphasized education as the most vital tool for changing women’s subjugated position in society. It is worthwhile to note that seeing all disparities, inequalities, discrimination, etc. education has been included as the basic right of human being in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948). Similarly, the constitution of UNESCO has directed all its efforts to achieve “ideal of equality of educational opportunity irrespective of race, sex or any distinction, economic or social”. In India, though women education has been a major concern of the Indian social reformers of the 19th century but their aim was to use education for making women capable of fulfilling their traditional roles as wives and mother rather than as efficient and active units in the process of socio-economic and political development (B.M. Sharma 2007). Thus, during the colonial period limited view of women education was accepted. However, a significant landmark in the history of Indian women began after the independence with the constitution of India guaranteeing equal educational rights and opportunities to both men and women. In-fact, the constitution of India took special care through Articles 41, 45 and 46 to promote education of its citizens without any discrimination. Recognizing the importance of women education and their roles in society, the Education Commission (1964 – 66) stated that “For full development of our human resources, the improvement of homes and for moulding the character of children during the most impressionable years of infancy, the education of women is of even greater importance than men. In the modern world the role of women goes much beyond the home and the bringing up of children”. Thus, after so many years finally the 86th Constitutional amendment Act making education, a fundamental right was passed by the Indian Parliament in 2002. Following this in the year 2009 a law to facilitate the realization of the fundamental right to education was passed by the Parliament by way of the Right of Children to Free and Compulsory Education Act (RTE). The right to education has finally become a fundamental right by giving effect to the Act on 1st April 2010. The Act mandates the Government to provide compulsory free education to every child up to 14 years irrespective of class and gender. In the recent decades, thanks to all the efforts, there has been wide acceptance and recognition of the importance of women development vis-à-vis the role of education. A total change is, however, yet to be noticed as still discrimination continues in different parts of India so far as women education is concerned. In other words, there is a wide gap between the De-jure and De-facto status of women education. Even after the seven decades of our independence, the growth rate of women’s literacy rate according to census reports does not reach to the expected level. Moreover, there is also many cases of dropouts of girls in the early phase of education due to so many factors such as – poverty, molestation, rape, menstrual related issues etc. Many a time the existing patriarchal structure and male ethos coupled with other socio-cultural customs, traditions and practices create hindrances in the way of enjoyment of equal educational rights by women. This obviously means that still large womenfolk of our country are discriminated, neglected and exploited in regard to their right to education. Moreover, needless to say that in today’s technological environment higher education rather than primary or secondary education, has become more vital for all round development of women in particular and a nation in general. But, in spite of being a catalyst for women development, there is hardly any attempt made from the government to promote the higher education of women. Though there is much talk on the promotion of elementary education but in the present era of globalization when in every sphere there is an ongoing competition for survival, only elementary or secondary level of education is not enough for women to cope up with the rapid changes in the world at large. In other words, to make women more powerful, independent and self-sufficient, there is a need to shift our focus from basic to the higher educational development of women.

A plethora of books has been written till now on the educational status of women and its relation with the empowerment of women in particular and development of society in general from which some are reviewed for the purpose of present study. N.L. Gupta, 2001 states that for understating the educational status of women in India, it is needed to highlight the historical development of women’s education from Vedic to the post-independence era. He pointed that the increasing numbers of crimes and rapes against women indicates the prevalence of age-old attitude towards women which considers women as second-class citizen. Therefore, for the refinement of generation and stereotype thinking women education is very important. R.N. Misra, 2006 in his book pointed out that density of a nation is moulded by education and in this regard, women education has strategic importance. Education helps the girl child to protest against early marriage which is the root cause of many of their sufferings such as ill-health, malnutrition, higher rate of infant mortality and life risk of mother. However, with the gradual spread of education and empowerment, the position of women has begun to change. Therefore, it should be the policy of government to bring them into the mainstream B.M. Sharma (Ed.), 2007 dwells on the potentialities of education in general and the role of education in improving the condition of women all over the world. He mentioned that education of women has of direct value which leads to social development. Moreover, he states that education is a means to remove under-development and gender biasness. R.C. Mishra, 2009 mentioned that education is the best investment for any society not only for the health and well being of its children but also for the social and economic progress. It is the principal means to boost a deeper and more harmonious form of human development thereby reducing ignorance, poverty, exclusion, oppression and war. N.V. Varghese and Garima Malik (Ed.), 2016 in his study mentioned that higher education sector is the determining force to produce and disseminate knowledge. Today knowledge production is concentrated in the developed countries because they realized the potential of higher education and research in improving economic growth. Hence, they invest more on higher education and research through public and private partnership. Investment in knowledge and human capital is the driving force behind economic growth in the developed countries. Therefore, the developing countries need to improve their ability to produce knowledge domestically and absorb the knowledge produced elsewhere. Hari Ponnamma Rani and Madhavi Kesari (Ed.), 2018 in their study pointed out that in terms of addressing gender discrimination though positive changes has been noticed but still much needs to be done. The promise of gender equality will be fulfilled on that day when women and girls have equal opportunities to be educated, to be participated in government, to achieve economic self sufficiency and secured from gender violence.

Historical and Social outline of Bishnupriya Manipuri Women

Manipuri Community is broadly divided into two linguistic groups viz - Bishnupriya and Meitei and both the groups use the term Manipuri with equal force and emotion. The Bishnupriya Manipuris now predominantly settled in Assam, Tripura and Sylhet in Bangladesh, trace their origin in the Manipur valley mainly the villages surrounding the Loktak Lake. However, in the middle of the 18^th century owing to internal conflicts among the Manipuri princes on the one hand and repeated Burmese invasion on the other, a large section of Bishnupriya Manipuris compelled to leave their motherland. However, in Manipur State particularly in Jiribum and Laisabital still quite large number of Bishnupriyas are settled.  The Bishnupriya Manipuris, who claim to be the kshatriyas of Aryan origin, have their own language as well as ethnic, cultural and social features which distinctly identifies them from all other communities. The Bishnupriya Manipuri society mainly consists of two sections viz. - Kshatriyas and Brahmins. Their social pattern reveals that casteism is not rigid as there is no such existence of lower caste people such as Vaishyas or Sudras in their community.

In Bishnupriya Manipuri society, the women have never been neglected. In comparison to the entire Indian society, the Bishnupriya Manipuri womenfolk always enjoy greater measure of equality and freedom as well as privileges in the society. The uniqueness of this community is that the social evils like Satidah, Dowry, Devadasi culture against women were never in practice. In-fact women always enjoy higher position which is proved by the honor showed to them in socio-cultural and religious activities through the ages. Even most of the religious and cultural ceremonies cannot be performed without the presence of women (whether married or un-married). The fact is that, from the grand time down to the present, the activities of Bishnupriya Manipuri women are not strictly confined to the four walls of domestic life unlike most of the Indian women. They have the equal share to meet their family expenses alongside male which often necessitates them to work outside in the paddy field at the time of reaping and harvesting of corps. In-fact, the Bishnupriya women are very laborious as most of them not only perform all their domestic works by themselves, but also engage in hand loom and handicraft works to meet their economic needs. Earlier, it was very difficult to find a Bishnupriya Manipuri house without weaving and knitting loom. The present decade witnessed the greater participation of womenfolk of this community in all spheres and no one can deny the importance of the contribution that women make in the family as well as societal level. Thus, the position and role of women towards their family as well as society is always very significant. Many a time, Bishnupriya Manipuri women have shown their gallantry and velour in challenging and critical situations. The significant role of Bishnupriya Manipuri women is very much evident in their language movement where almost all the women participated with courage and Sudeshna Sinha, a great lady, who even did not hesitate to sacrifice her life for the sake of her mother tongue in 1996.

Nevertheless, like the greater Indian society, the Bishnupriya Manipuri society is also patriarchal in nature. Hence, the male members generally possess the sole authority in the family affairs as well as property. The women folk though always deserve an honorable position and, in some occasions, they are even treated as equal to male persons, but they are not treated as effective decision makers. Major management functions and decision-making power are enjoyed by the male members and regarding the possession of property women generally did not get and even claim their share from paternal property. In-spite of their labor, skills and contribution, womenfolk generally find it very difficult to enjoy their right to take decisions, rather they are under the control and protection of males. Thus, though the Bishnupriya Manipuri women have got due recognition and enjoy special privileges as well as freedom in the society, but being women, they have had to forgo some of privileges and rights that are regarded as exclusively the male preserve.

In case of education, the situation of Bishnupriya Manipuri women is no better than the whole Indian women. Earlier, before independence of India, Bishnupriya Manipuri women were deprived of their right to education. On the one hand, most of the women were ignorant about the importance of education in their lives and on the other those women who took interest were find it very difficult to pursue their education either due to poverty, poor communication system and lack of sufficient educational institutions. Apart from that the family members and the parents were also not that interested to send girl child to schools for having their education because they did not feel the necessity as well as usability of women education. Rather, they stressed on the learning of domestic works, weaving and knitting, cultivation etc. which were in fact prime criteria for marriage. Thus, very few number of Bishnupriya Manipuri women received education in the pre-independence era. Even after independence also there was no sea change in the educational status of Bishnupriya Manipuri women. It was only in the early 70s of the present decade that there was a general awareness on the necessity of women education. Thus, fortunately these days, some of the Bishnupriya Manipuri women are shining in the fields of education as they are given equal opportunities and rights of education by the society and the families. However, since majority of Bishnupriyas are settled in rural areas and most of them are not economically sound it becomes very difficult for girls to pursue higher education. Therefore, the community deserves attention of scholars to research on the higher educational status of Bishnupriya Manipuri women and to explore their challenges and their level of education in relation to their empowerment and development and also to find the changes occurred in the context of their status in the socio-economic, political and cultural environment in which they live.

For this purpose, the case study method has been used and data has been collected both from the primary and secondary sources. For the collection of primary data, a total number of 200 women sample has been selected from Cachar district of Assam through the method of simple random sampling. In addition, extensive interviews have been conducted with the women respondents. The survey has been conducted in the selected areas and hence no attempt has been made to generalize the findings with other areas. Whereas the secondary data has been collected from text books, journals and internet sources.

Educational status of the Bishnupriya Manipuri Women:

                Education as mentioned above is an important variable determining the life style, occupation and behavior pattern of women to a great extent. Education provides greater information, more critical, calculative, broader and analytical approach in all spheres by expanding the horizon of one’s interest and knowledge. Therefore, to know the De-facto status of education of the Bishnupriya Manipuri women a survey was conducted over 200 Bishnupriya Manipuri women sample above 18 years. The following table shows the distribution of respondents according to their educational attainments.

Table 1

Distribution of respondents by education

(Numerals in parenthesis indicate percentage)

According to parameters set by the census report 2011, it is found that out of the 200 women in the sample, 19(9.5%) are illiterate, while 181 (90.5%) are literate. It means that the literacy rate among the Bishnupriya Manipuri women is quite encouraging. However, an important point is that almost all the illiterate respondents are above 45 years. When the respondents are asked about the reason of being illiterate, then most of them mentioned about the rigid patriarchal mentality coupled with their lack of interest and awareness about the necessity of education as the prime reason of being illiterate.  The fact is that earlier women education was not so important and as such most of the women were interested not in education but in domestic and other handicraft works. While those few women who showed their interest was find it very difficult to access their higher education owing to the situations that prevails at that time. It indicates that roughly till 70s of the present century women did not enjoy their educational rights either due to lack of interest and awareness or due to male domination and gender discrimination. Nevertheless, at present women enjoy their equal educational rights.

Though, the literacy rate of Bishnupriya Manipuri women is quite praiseworthy but it is very important to find out their level of education in order to know their degree of development and empowerment. The following table provides the distribution of literate women according to their level of education.                                           

Table 2

Distribution of literate respondents by their level of education

Educational level	No. of Respondents
Primary	26 (14.4%)
Secondary	110 (60.7%)
Degree	32 (17.7%)
Post-graduates	13 (7.2%)
Total	181 (100%)

(Numerals in parenthesis indicate percentage)

An analysis of the data from the above table shows that out of 181 literate women 26(14.4%) have received primary education (up to 5^th standard), 110(60.7%) have education up to secondary level (up to 10^th standard), 32(17.7%) are graduates and 13(7.2%) are post-graduates. Thus, it is clear that majority (60.7%) of Bishnupriya Manipuri women are educated up to secondary level while only few women (7.2% post-graduates and 17.7% graduates) have received higher level of education. An important point is that after the secondary level, the education of majority of Bishnupriya Manipuri women have been terminated. The main reasons of such termination are – a) Poverty b) Early Marriage b) Gender Stereotype i.e. feeling of women as Paraya dhan resulting primacy of boys’ education over girls c) Insecurity due to growing crimes against women d) Lose of interest due to growing unemployment f) Family burden etc. Besides, compared to urban, women from rural areas find it very difficult to pursue higher education as in rural areas communication is not good. Moreover, higher educational institutions are very few in rural areas on the one hand and on the other it becomes difficult to move urban areas for education due to economic constraints. These are the main factors which act as hindrances or challenges on the attainment of higher education by Bishnupriya Manipuri women.

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