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Vanijya is an ancient term for trade. Trade is the selling and buying of goods and services between two or more parties in consideration of cash and cash equivalent. In another word, trade is the activity of exchanging goods or services between people or countries.[1] A person who purchases and sells goods and services to gain profit or margin is called a trader. Jambudipa or modern India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh together has a very peculiar geographical location. Sumeru or Himavanta is a huge mountain range situated in the north of Jambudipa. A major portion of Jambudipa has surrounded by sea. Jambudipa has a broad area in middle, which became gradually triangular and pointed towards the south of the sea. This special geographical location and vast ocean in the south are responsible for the four-month rainy season and a complete seasonal cycle of climate. Thus people have different food, clothing and shelter according to the season. Thus traders have a better range of products. Several other favourable geographical circumstances were responsible for trade. Fertile plains with networks or rivers early Buddhist texts have most reference to Ganga plains with tributaries of Ganga and local rivers. The rivers are near which fulfil the water requirement of agriculture and flood maintain fertility. The one fact about ancient trade which impresses itself on the most casual observer is the fact of trade by groups, caravans, and companies. The king also knew the importance of traders. Money is a cumulative form of currency. Money is a motif instrument and result of trade. Trade is started by a trader because of the motif to earn money. Long-distance land trade was done by Sattavaha and his five hundred companion traders. The group comprises five hundred traders because of security and comfortability reasons. The inland trade of a country may either be wholesale or retail. Trade between distant country parts was in the hands of adventurous merchants, who led great caravans from one part of the country to another. Trade and Buddhism have two distant purposes; trader wants to earn money but monks have business with their mind, thought and preaching laymen. Instead of this major difference, they influenced each other and were interdependent. The Jataka has 547 stories also called Jataka. Jataka stories have much evidence of trade. Trade played a role in the economic foundation of Buddhism and its spread.

F.L. Pryor’s ‘A Buddhist Economic System in Practice’ tells about the information regarding to the economic supports to Buddhism. The actions of the ruler and economic policies affected the economic positions of Buddhist monks. The economic dialectic between monks and laity has a strong influence on capital formation. This work provides great information of state economic support to Buddhism but lacks in merchants and trading class’s economic supports to Buddhism.[2]Simon Zadek’s ‘The Practice of Buddhist Economics: Another view’, provides the nature of Buddhist economy. He has been discussed the impact of Buddhist institutions on laity supports to monks on economic, role material welfare in Buddhist conception development. This work also lacks in discussing role of trade in the economic supports to Buddhism.[3] Moti Chandra’s book Trade and trade routes in ancient India provide information about trade and different trade routes in ancient Indian times. This study was in the canonical and story literature of Buddhists and Jains such accounts have survived which throw light on ancient trade, trade routes, organization of the caravans and the position of the caravan leader. The stable political conditions help in growth of trade and commerce in a realistic manner. The book has not been provided information about the role of trade in the economic foundation of Buddhism.[4] Hajime Nakamura’s book Indian Buddhism is a survey of Indian Buddhism with bibliographical notes. He said that Buddhism grown along trade routes. The role of rich people, cities, merchant class was in origin of Buddhism. He did not talk of trade in the economic foundation of Buddhism.[5]

Kings Support to Trade and Traders

The first evidence of politically united ancient India, some extraordinary archaeological evidence e.g. Sanchi, Bharahut Stupas, Asokan inscriptions and pillars, Ajanta, Ellora caves, their main or earliest theme the Buddha indicate Jatakas are the birth stories of the Buddha in the previous existence. It was impossible to build these monuments without the help of Kings and traders. They form a vast literature, written in Pali, and afford an interesting account of the social, political and economic condition of India about the time of Gautama Buddha. The stories reveal the economic condition of India in the age of the Jatakas.[6]

Gana-Sangha (Republic) Raja and Muddavisitta (Monarchy) Raja were two types of political systems in Jambudipa. Malla, Sakya, Licchavi and Vajji were famous for their Gana-Sangha. Magadha, Vamsa, Avanti and Kosala were the most famous example of a monarchy system. Their kings were the supreme authority. In the administrative city lived the king's family, officials and traders. The safety provided for traders. The king also knew the importance of traders.

The king encouraged the public Vanijja. The public became happy and live peacefully. They gave more tax and kings provided them peace. There were three types of kings' roles in trade. The first was in the establishment of development of trade. The next one was in the establishment of law and order which is necessary for trade. The last was a settlement of traders and related disputes. Digha-Nikaya refers king's contribution for provide money to traders for trade. Providing money to traders establish trade in no trading areas. Other investments in safety-security, agricultural and animal husbandry also indirectly encourage trade. An extra output of agriculture milk products, as well as bullocks for agriculture and transportation, ultimately help in trading. Peace and good law and order situation of a Janapada is a very important part of the trade. There were many thieves and robbers. It was the duty of the king to punish these culprits. There are many references in early Buddhist texts which indicate that the king follows his responsibility to establish law and order and peace in his Janapada city and trade route. A strong administration was required for the authority of justice and peace. A wise king knows the importance of trade and he encourages trade. The Janapadas mostly have the power to control law order situations and maintain a peaceful and healthy environment for peace and development.

The kings were aware of the importance of traders. Gahapati was one of seven Jewels of the king. He had money when the king needed he provided money. The Setthi was mostly were most prosperous trader of Janapada. He was an unpaid official of the king. The trade provides revenue to the king. Traders and Gahapatis were the main trading group who involve, direct and initiate the trading system.  They often travel a lot for trade. This generated new ideas and implement new technologies. The traders have a good relationship with the king, Sippika, and Dasa- Kammakara and even with compatriots of other Janapadas etc.

Early Buddhist Trade

In the earliest literature of the Buddhists, we find the word Vijo meaning merchants in general. Some of these merchants traded with foreign countries and carried their goods in their vessels (Samudda-vanijo). The Nikayas, too, speak of sea-voyages to distant foreign lands but details are lacking until we come to the period during which the Jatakas and other later books were composed. The evidence is available in the context of Indian goods in foreign literature which goes to confirm the existence of commercial intercourse with the people of Western Asia.

Vohra word has four broad and diverse meanings, first trade, Business; second current appellation, common use (of language), a common way of defining, designation, the proper mode of speech; third lawsuit, law, judicial practice; the fourth name of Yakkha of the sea.[7] But trade as the meaning of Vohra has maximum references. Suttanipata says the person who depends on Vohra for his livelihood is called Vanija. Majjhima-Nikaya cites the Buddha asked Potaliya Gahapati about well being of his work and business Majjhima-Nikaya. The word used for business in Pali is Vohra.

Every individual or group has different needs and surpluses. It is not possible to satisfy all needs on their own without any help or exchange of goods and services. The initial form of trade was barter or direct exchange of goods and services. Thus fulfilling needs and giving surpluses in exchange at the same time were perquisites for trade. Later one side of the barter started to involve precious metals, which refers to trade in early Pali literature.[8] Early Pali texts provide much analysis of the importance of trade in society and its practical aspects. Anguttar-Nikaya mention three types of people; first who successfully indulge in trade, second who failed in trade, and third other people who benefited from trade. The Buddha suggested some restrictions for Upasakas and Bhikkhu. Upasakas were denied to involve five types of trades e.g. Satthavanijja, Sattavanijja, Mamsavanijja, and Visavanijja. The Buddha strictly denied involving in any type of economic activity for Bhikkhu and Bhikkhunis. Trade is economic activity in which money and profit are involved thus it is not allowed for Bhikkhu and Bhikkhunis. Trade and other money-earning activities are forbidden such as Naccam, Vesim, Panagaram, Sunam, Apanam, Vaddhim, Vanijjam, and Haritakapakkim. Vanijja has two meaning broader meanings for all trading activities including Kayavakkaya, Apanam and Vohara[9] but sometimes it excluded these trading activities.

Several words were used to denote Traders in Early Pali texts as Vanija, Apanika etc.[10] Gahapati, Satthavaha, Negama, Jetthaka Niyyam, Assavanija, Varunivanija Kacchaputta Vanija, Vessika, and Voharika were the other people who were involved in a trade or similar jobs. One who has the livelihood of Kayavikkaya is called Vanija, and one who is the leader of Vanija for long-distance travellers is Satthavaha.[11] Gahapati word has maximum references used for a trader.

The ports of departure were noted many; the Losaka-Jataka speaks of the port of Gambhira (Gambhira Pattana), Bharukaccha, Roruka, Supparaka, and Kavira-pattana were the other ports of departure of vessels. Some of the merchants were carried on a coasting trade, while others journeyed across the ocean. The vessels' at sea were under the command of Niyamakas and were guided by skilled mariners, who noted the position at sea by marking the position of pianets and stars (Vannu-patha). The Jatakas are telling to us nothing about the principal commodities. Probably the exports carried Indian cotton, birds, ivory and other raw produce of the country.

Inland trade- Commonly, Indian merchants who were moved with goods in great caravans from one part of the country to another, elected one of their members as their leader and this man was called the Satthavaha or caravan leader. The Jatakas have described the difficulties of caravan merchants. Robbers often looted the caravans. Long-distance land trade was done by Sattavaha and his five hundred companion traders. The group comprises five hundred traders because of security and comfortability reasons. Individuals also do long-distance trade also referred to in early Buddhist texts. Gandhara Setthi and Anathapindika trade reference also indicates long-distance trade. Gandhara Setthi sends five hundred bullock cart trade material to sell in Savatthi. Anathapindika helped him to sell the material. When Anathapindika sent his five hundred bullock cart trade material Gandhara setthi did not help him. Once again Gandhara Setthi sends his five hundred bullock cart trade material for sale in Savatthi this time Kammakara of Anathapindika beat the workers of Gandhara setthi. Traders Tapassu and Bhallika came from Ukkala and were on their way to reach Bodhgaya and meet the Buddha. In another reference, a person says that he went to Kalinga and do trade. The Pali text Milinda-Panho also informs us regarding a wholesaler or Pataliputra, returning to his city with five hundred wagons.[12]

Trade between distant country parts was in the hands of adventurous merchants, who led great caravans from one part of the country to another. Most of these caravans followed the great trunk roads, while some merchants used river traffic in exporting their goods. In one Jataka, we find a merchant travelling from Sravasti to Rajagraha. Another mentioned ivory merchants of Banares moving to Ujjain. The Gandhara Jataka refers to the Journey of caravans from Videha to Gandhara, a distance of more than 1200 miles.[13]

Sea trade-  Jataka have a reference for long-distance sea trade from Bharukaccha. The Baveru-Jataka has reference to Niyyam-Jataka who was the leader of sea Voyage. Besides trade material, they sold crow in one hundred Kahapana. In the next trade journey beside their trade material, they sold peacocks in one thousand Kahapana after a long request conversation by residents of Baveru.  The Baveru people craze peacocks because there were no birds. In Supparka-Jataka a group of seven hundred traders returned to Bharukaccha. Other merchants carried their goods on board vessels, and this use of water traffic for purposes of trade is proved by the Jataka evidence. Thus from the Cullasetthi-Jataka, we know of a merchant who took a vessel to Banaras, while the Mahajanaka-Jataka suggests that in those days the Ganges was navigable by river crafts of considerable size, and merchants from big cities on her bank came down right up to the sea.[14]

Trade provided availability of thing e.g. Varanasi trade centre provided cloth and sandal. Avanti king has Sivivattha. Trade provided support city and Janapada economy. e. g. Kasi was a big trade centre and thus has large earnings. So Kosala and Magadha fought many wars for Kasi. Setthi and Gahapati were very respectful and have an important place in Janapada (seven jewels of the king) and city (Nigama increased earning of the city; people of Saket were worried because their Setthi was ill). Trade reduced the rate of things. Trade provide technology and information transfer quickly. Trade especially sea trade has more profitability in less time. So different segment of society was attracted to trade. Trade provides employment and a good lifestyle. Types of cloth/clothes- Pali word Vattha means cloth and clothes both.[15] Clothes were a very popular material of trade and Dussavanija or clothes trade was one of the famous trades mentioned in early Buddhist texts. Kasi was most famous for Vattha.[16] The religious impression/symbol of clothes has religious importance. During the time of the Buddha different Ganacarya used different types of clothes to show their devotion. Kusaciram, Vakaciram, Phalakaciram,, Kesakambalam, Valakambalam, Ulukapakkham, Ajinakkhipam, vattha were very rarely mentioned in the Pali texts.[17] Bhikkhus wear Civar because it protects from cold, summer, Dansa, Mosquitoes, wind, sun rays, protect from attack of Snake and Scorpion bites. The Civar is not for play, pride, or decoration purpose. White clothes are excellent. Clothes have many stages of manufacturing e.g. raw material collection, spinning, weaving, sewing, colouring, washing, and polishing. Every stage needs a skilled person. The process of each stage is well defined in Sutta and Vinay texts. Dhunki or carding cotton instrument[18]and weaving by weaver[19] is mentioned in Jataka. It has social value and popular gift items, the people from the high class wear Kasika Vattha or costly clothes which indicate their richness and place in society. People gifted clothes including Civara and Dusala to the Buddha, kings and other people. Majjhima-Nikaya cites Atthaka Nagara  Dasam Gahapati called Bhikkhusangha for Bhojanadana. He gave one Dussayuga to each Bhikkhu after food.[20] He gave Civar of three layers to Anand.[21]

In the question of King Milinda, the various parts of a ship are described as well as the ship as a whole.  Thus we find various commercial objectives mentioned: Bharukachaha, Suvannbhumi (Burmah), and Sobhira. Tambapanna dipa (Ceylon), Baveru (Babylon), and China are mentioned in later literature, in the Questions of the King Milinda.[22] The story of Baveru-Jataka indicates that the Vamas of Western India undertook trading voyages to the shores of the Persian gulf or its rivers in the 5^th perhaps even in the 6^th century B.C. just as in our days. The story of Baveru-Jataka relates the adventures of Indian merchants who took the first peacock by sea to Babylon. The Greeks very well knew certain Indian commodities by their Indian names in the fifth century B.C. The direct overseas intercourse with China was a late development. In the Pali literature, the earliest reference to sea trade with China occurs only in later works like the Questions of the King Milinda.[23] The articles of this trade were rubies, pearls, sugar, aromatics, peacocks, corals and the like many embassies from Indian sovereigns who brought merchandise under the name of tribute to the Chinese court. Later on, the intercourse between the two countries received a special stimulus from the Indian propaganda of Buddhism, and the result was that at one time and in one province more than 3000 Indian monks and 10,000 Indian families were there to impress their national religion and art on Chinese soil.[24]

Another direction that the commerce of India took was towards the East which is an ultra-Gangetic peninsula, comprising Java, Pegu, and Malacca. The Jataka stories are full of references to an active Indian, trade with the Suvannabhumi or the Golden Chersonese all these accounts point to complete navigation of the Bay of Bengal and the Indian Ocean and the flow of steady and ceaseless traffic between Bengal and Ceylon, Madras and Burma.[25]

In the international field, ancient India had sound and well-developed trade relations with Egypt, Greece, Rome, Arabia, Persia, China and countries of central and South-eastern Asia. Also, she had her commercial sway over many civilized islands lying within the orbit of the Indian Ocean. The increasing trade links with distant countries overcame the difficulties of distance, diversity in climate, differences in languages and the dangers of wild animals and pirates to a great extent. Among the exports from India, are items like live animals; minerals including precious stones, beryls, diamonds and pearls; manufactures including iron and steel, cutlery, weapons of war, armours, metal wares, cotton cloth, muslins, ivory-work, ships, perfumery and pottery; drugs including opium and other unguents, dyestuffs and indigo and food items including pepper, ginger, cloves, cinnamon, cardamom, betel-nuts, corn and rice figured in prominence. The main items of imports had been minerals like brass, tin, lead, gold and silver, consumable articles like wine, fruits and frankincense; manufactures like silk fabrics, boats, precious stones, and Chinese porcelain; and China and Southeast Asian countries and the Western nations in the fields of commerce and trade. China exported silk fabrics through Indian merchants.[26]

Reflected Trade in Jataka

The Buddha shaped the relationship between trade and Buddhism in two ways. One, he decided the duties of Bhikkhu-Sangh with minimum requirements and dependency on laymen mostly traders. Two, the Buddha preached or influenced the Buddhist texts. These texts have teachings of the Buddha for monks and laymen. The Buddha solved the problems of the monks and laymen and taught them with daily life examples. The relationship between trade and Buddhism is not mentioned. But instead of trade, all laymen community was advised by the Buddha. The Buddha was very clear about his ideas and thoughts. Probably the Buddha deliberately established Panchvatthuni. Devadutta has manor disagreements on these five things. These are in which building Vihara and begging alms were most important. These two things reveal the Buddha intentionally created a dependency of Bhikkus on laymen. Because the monks were not allowed to do any physical, monetary work e.g. digging, transaction of money etc, it was the duty of laymen. On the other hand, begging alms removed the ego of monks and increased dependency on laymen. There was a lot of Jungle at that time. It was easy to survive for food and dwelling in the jungle. It was easier for a Bhikkhu to practice personal upliftment in the jungle than living near human settlements. But the Buddha has Karuna for many, so he established this type of complex but more beneficial system. Among the public, this useful system of the Buddha was first understood, recognized and followed by the traders.

Jataka, Digha-Nikaya, Majjhima-Nikaya, Samyutta-Nikaya, Angutta-Nikaya and some other Khuddaka-Nikaya texts as Dhammapada, Suttanipata, Theragatha, Udana are the major the Pali texts. Although Jataka is a part of Khuddaka-Nikaya because of its ancient subject matter and a lot of trade evidence it has given importance. The Buddha’s teachings are preserved in the early Buddhist texts. The early Pali sources are based on size (Digha-Nikaya, Majjhima-Nikaya, Khuddaka-Nikaya), nature (philosophical as Majjhima-Nikaya and daily life as Suttanipata, Jataka, Udana) and counting (Anguttar-Nikaya and Yamakavagga) make it more complex to establishing a relationship between trade and Buddhism. But Buddhist texts have their peculiar style and nature.

The organization of Pali texts is not similar or unique. The Jataka has 547 stories also called Jataka. These Jataka are classified into forty-two Vagga and these Vagga are further organized under twenty-two Nipata. Thus the smallest and most important chapter unit of Jataka is Jataka. Jataka stories have much evidence of trade. This evidence can be classified into several groups.

Many Jataka stories are named after traders or trader’s associates. Serivani-Jatakam is a Jataka story name after a greedy Kacchaputavanijo[27], or a hawker named Seriva[28]. Culasetthi-Jatakam[29] is a story of distressed Kulaputta who became rich with his efforts.[30] Pannika-Jatakam[31] is a story of a vegetable and herb seller, who inspects the character of his daughter.[32] Illisa-Jatakam is the story of Setthi named Illisa, who was a big miser. But his forefathers were big Dani or generous. Kalakanni-Jatakam[33]  is a story based on Anathapindaka’s friend named Kalakanni. Some people said he is unfortunate, but he was a close friend of Anathapindika.[34] Nanda-jatakam[35], Katahaka-jataka[36] have stories are named on traders’ dasa. Who married to distant daughters of another Setthi pretend as Setthiputta.[37] Nanda-Jatakam[38] is a story of a reliable Dasa named Nanda who does not tell treasurer place to his master’s son.[39] Mode of trade, type of traders and names of traders pieces of evidence in Jataka mode of trade in Jataka are a shop, hawker, and wholesaler. Satthavaha, Vanija, Jettaka navika are type of traders.

Under this category, Jataka[38] stories are not named after traders or their associates. These stories have content of famous traders e.g. Anathapindika and Visakha. Khadirangara-Jatakam[40]is a story related to Dana given by Anathapindika.[41] Varunidusakala-jatakam[42] is a story of Anathapindika’s friend, who was trader of liquor.[43] Veri-Jatakam[44] is a reference of Anathapindika. Who saw thieves but did not stop his bullock cart.[45] Many Jataka has long-distance trading shreds of evidence. Their evidence is many types as under the guidance of Satthavaha, without Satthavaha but in a group, individuals as Anathapindiaka and Gandhara Setthi. Jataka has long-distance sea trade evidence. Baveru-Jatakam has a reference to reaching Baveru.[46] According to Supparaka-Jatakam, traders' boats came from Bharucaccha for searching money.[47] Sonaka-Jatakam referred to the traders who took their boats to sea in search of money.[48]

The Jatakas contain explicit professes to the trade of India with Babylon. The Babylonian markets offered fabulous prices for some of the luxury articles exported from India. The growth of trade and Commerce had two significant consequences. First, it promoted a broader Outlook. This wider orientation is seen in the attitude of Buddha. Buddha hopes that his message should spread in all quarters and corners. This machinery outlook of Buddha would have been possibly influenced by the Dynamic economy of the day. The ritualistic cult of the Brahmins had fostered a local and restricted Outlook. It was complicated and required for its performance trained priesthood. Hence it is spread aid in countries outside India was difficult. In the early Buddhist works, there is a reference to great mercantile magnates. These Magnates substantially helped in the strengthening of the Buddhist movement. The increase in trade and Commerce is an index of the economic prosperity e of the richer sections, and the merchants who helped Buddhism must have been indirect sharers in the expanded wealth of the country. Thus it appears that the increase in trade and Commerce had two consequences for the new movement of Buddhism. It fostered acceptance of a wider missionary outlook and it prepared the ground for the expansion of wealth which made it possible at least in some cases that large gifts could be extended to the religious movements.

Jatakas form a vast literature, written in Pali, and afford an interesting account of the social, political and economic condition of India about the time of Gautama Buddha. The stories reveal the economic condition of India in the age of the Jatakas. Thus we can deduce that the merchants and traders were rich and great merchant Anathapindika lavished fifty-four cores on the faith of the Buddha. We further notice in Jatakas that 18 cores of family property of Anathapindika were washed to sea.[49] A Brahman merchant daily gave in alms six hundred thousand pieces of money to way-farers and beggars.[50] Thus it seems that inland trade in the age of Jatakas was in a flourishing condition.

Foreign trade seems to be in flourishing condition during the Buddha period. It is obvious from the references to the caravan trade in Jatakas and items of export and import such as spices, slaves, garland, ass, horses, jewellery ivory work, embroideries, silk, muslin, cutlery, gems of various kinds,[51]perfumes, gold, and silver.[52] The Mahajanaka-Jataka shows that there was something like, what we term foreign trade between Indian and outside, but does not mention the name to which country these merchants came from. We have ample references to maritime activities and sea-faring activities in Pali literature. It has been mentioned in the Valatassa-Jataka[53] that five hundred ships shattered in the sea, but the name of the country is not mentioned. It is noted in the Supparaka-Jataka[54] that a body of merchants who started their journey by ship from sea-port of Bharukaccha lost their way and took four months to reach their destination. It is very clear from the Jatakas that trade had existed between India and outside India because Jatakas contain several stories describing voyages to distant lands and perilous adventures by the sea.

Thus, we can deduce that trade was the natural corollary of the economic life of people in early India, in the age of Jatakas. Inland and foreign trade were vigorous in most of ancient India. Trade had a very deep effect on the life and culture of early Indian people. During this time trade between India and foreign nations was successfully carried out both by land and sea. We come to know from the Pali literature that certain places became prominent and towns had long existed around centres of trade.

We come to know from the Jatakas that early India had trade relations with Ceylon, Burma, Siam and Babylon. Thus from the above analysis, we notice that the volume of foreign trade in early India with foreign nations had greatly influenced the economic and cultural life of the people in the age of Jatakas. The first two vacasika Upasaka Tapussa and Bhallika were traders.[55] Anathapindika the famous Setthi and Visakha were from prosperous trading families. These two were called fathers and mothers of Bhikkhu-Sangh. No other person got such respect in Buddhist history. Money references to money and trading are found in Buddhist literature. Thus it is clear that traders and trade were existing and flourished at that time.

1. “Trade” The oxford advanced Learner’s Dictionary, A. S. Hornby, 2015, p. 9. 2. Pryor,F.L. A Buddhist Economic System In Practice: The Rules Of State Policy Making Of The Ideal Kings Sought A ‘Middle Way’ Between Right And Left,The American Journal Of Economics And Sociology,1991,50,17-32. 3. Zadek,S. The Practice Of Buddhist Economics? Another View, American Journal Of Economics And Sociology, 1993,52(4),pp.433-445. 4. Chandra,Moti,Trade And Trade Routes In Ancient India, Abhinav Publications,New Delhi,1917. 5. Nakamura, Hajima. Indian Buddhism: A Survey with Bibliographical Notes, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi,1987. 6. S. Bhattacharya, A Dictionary of Indian History. Delhi, 1994, Vol.11, p. 490. 7. Pali-English Dictionary, T. W. Rhys Davids and William Stede, MLBD Pub, Pvt, LTD, Delhi, 2007, p. No. 652. 8. English-Pali Dictionary, A. P. Buddhadatta Mahathera, P. T. S. London, p. no. 540. 9. Abhidanappadipikatika, Myanmar, p. 319. 10. English-Pali Dictionary, A. P. Buddhadatta Mahathera, Pali Text Society, London. 11. Abhidhanappadipikatika, Bhukhanda, Myanmar, p. 319. 12. SBE, XXXV, p. 27. 13. N. C. Bandyopadhyaya, Economic Life and Progress in Ancient India, Abinash Prakashan, Allahabad, 1925, p. 236. 14. Ibid, p. 237. 15. Ibid, p. 598. 16. Samyutta-Nikaya-2, p. no. 641. 17. Vinaya-Pitaka, p. No. 293. 18. Jataka-6, p. No. 41. 19. Jataka-6, p. No. 27. 20. Majjhima-Nikaya, p. No. 211. 21. Majjhima-Nikaya, p. No. 211. 22. Questions of the King Milinda, VII-2, pp. 8-12. 23. Questions of the King Milinda, VII-2, pp. 13-17. 24. Ibid, p. 224 25. Ibid, p. 225. 26. Periplus, CAI, p. 308. 27. Jataka-Atthakatha-1,VRII, p. 118. 28. Jatakapali-1, VRII.2 29. Jatakapali-1, VRII.2 30. Jataka-Atthakatha-1,VRII, p. 127. 31. Jatakapali-1, VRII. p. 23. 32. Jataka-Atthakatha-1,VRII, p. 395. 33. Jatakapali-1, VRII. p. 20. 34. Jataka-Atthakatha-1,VRII, p. 347. 35. Jatakapali-1, VRII. p. 9. 36. Jatakapali-1, VRII. p. 28. 37. Jataka-Atthakatha-1,VRII, p. 432. 38. Jatakapali-1, VRII. p. 10. 39. Jataka-Atthakatha-1,VRII, p. 220. 40. Jatakapali-1, VRII. p. 9. 41. Jataka-Atthakatha-1,VRII, p. 228. 42. Jatakapali-1, VRII.p. 11. 43. Jataka-Atthakatha-1,VRII, p. 245. 44. Jatakapali-1, VRII. p. 23. 45. Jataka-Atthakatha-1,VRII, p. 395. 46. Jatakapali-1, VRII. p. 96. 47. Jatakapali-1, VRII. p. 186. 48. Jatakapali-2, VR12. p. 37. 49. Jat. Op, cit. Nos, 40, 78. 50. Ibid, Bhadra-Ghata- Jataka, p. No. 442. 51. Jat. Op, cit. Bhadra-Ghata-Jataka, Vol., IV,21, pp. 139-41. 52. C. A. F. Rhys David, op. cit. p. 190. 53. Ibid, p. no. 196. 54. Ibid, Supparaka-Jataka. 55. Vinaya-Pitaka,Tr. By Rahula Sanskrityayanda, p. 77.