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Migration is the third variable after birth and death which have a capacity to change the size and structure of any population quite drastically at any point of time, especially when large numbers move into or out of a particular area. Migration may change the socio-economic and political milieu of population. Thus migration also acts as a protection or against the existing socio-economic arrangements as well as on development at place of origin and place of destination. Such changes create the questions like; why do people move, in which direction they move, what are the patterns of their movement and concentration, and what are the causes and consequences. The different theoretical views enrich the understanding of the issues of migration related with the process of migration. Economic perspective reveals the empirically generalised patterns of migration, the situation-specific push-pull factors, the cost and the return while sociological view shows the relation of migration to the culture, caste, education, social development, poverty, family marriage and urbanization etc. In reference to migration the urbanisation, transportation, industrialisation, communications, education, medical facilities, electrification and water supply etc. are positive consequences of historical development. On another side there are existences of crime such as prostitution, murder, theft, child labour, and other aspects like pollution, alcohol consumption and slum etc, which are negative consequences of migration. The migration creates the balance or imbalance in economic and social development. Thus migration is itself cause and consequences.

Migration is a process of changing the usual place of residence. It started with the beginning of the humankind. It is evident that people move from the place of origin to destination in search of means of subsistence, betterment of life and to grapes the higher order of socio- economic development. According to Debnath and Ray (2017) migration is a major demographic process by which human civilization has spread out enriching culture, disseminating ideas and generating social, political and economic changes at the place of origin and destination.
It is widely recognised fact that many people in developing countries especially in India are facing the problem of landlessness, lack of sustainable resources, unemployment, underemployment and economic hardships. The high growth of population, slow pace of economic growth with high inequalities in the distribution of productive resources spontaneously creates the streams of migration. Better economic development opportunities and the standard of living in the urban centres attract rural poor. Therefore, this study would be significant for understanding the consequences of migration in the arid (Bikaner) and semi arid (Nagaur) districts of western Rajasthan.
The heavy influx of people from rural to urban area increases the momentum of urbanisation. Gupta (1984) reveals that the net rural to urban migration accounts for about one- third of the decadal urban growth. Irving and Mohapatra (2005) says that although the unemployment and lower quality of employment are available in the cities yet the push and pull factors are dominate. Jodha (1985) argues that the loss of common property resources in rural area has also pushed the population from rural to urban area.

This study is based on secondary as well as primary data. Secondary data sources include Census of India 1951-2011, Government of India and District Statistical Hand Book, DE &S, Jaipur. The primary data has been collected by conducting the field survey at arid district of Bikaner and semi arid district of Nagaur, Rajasthan state of India. The field survey includes the basic household survey, main household survey, in depth interview of some persons (sirpanches, secretaries, elderly etc.). The samples were collected from all urban area of both the districts and selected villages through stratified and systematic sampling. These villages were selected on the basis of composite index (based on development Indicators). The collected data were analysed with the help of Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) software. Data are represented through cartographic techniques.

Urbanisation is itself an indicator of population change either by migration or natural growth. In Bikaner district the urban population shows growth over the period in numbers but shows decline in percentage due to the more pace of rural population. Bikaner city got an opportunity after the independence to be a divisional headquarters for administration. Many government establishments were developed in due course of time along with being an important army headquarter and railway division. This leads to increase the facilities here i.e. hospitals, education institutes from school to college and recently university level, industry (especially food and agriculture) and recreation etc. These resources attracted the people not only from surrounding villages but also from outside the district and the states i.e. from Punjab and Haryana also. People also move for job opportunity (Mondal and Tripathy, 2022).

 Here it is also noticeable that rural population were also increasing in Bikaner district because of Indira Gandhi Canal Project which had increased the facility for drinking and irrigation in rural area especially near to international boarder which is much more desert.  This high rural growth supersedes the urban population in terms of percentage.  

But semi arid district Nagaur shows continuous increase in urban population in terms of number and percentage share. Nagaur does not have any such urban area where facility is at high order. So, people migrate from rural area to urban and outside the district especially for employment, medical and education services. Nagaur district has been large rural population which depends upon monsoon rainfall and that rainfall is not sufficient for earnings. Here, agriculture depends upon nature’s juggling, while some of the area is based on tube wells for irrigation. Such conditions create a push factor along with low industrial and service sector employment. Thus people have to move another area for betterment of life.

Urbanization comes along with change in occupational structure. It is very much apparent in the table of Bikaner and Nagaur district of occupational structure. As urbanization increases, people move from agriculture sector to industry and service sector. In Bikaner district, rural population is showing slightly low percentage share in cultivation over the period but this slow change is due to Indira Gandhi Canal Project which maintained it by inmigration in particular rural canal area of Bikaner. Percentage share of population is increasing in service sector in rural area. It shows that people, who are moving to urban area, are mostly occupying the place in industry and service sector.

In Nagaur district, population is bound to change their occupation due to limited facility and opportunity in agriculture. Such population is either changing their occupation at their own village level or at urban area within district or outside the district for betterment of life. The above table shows this scenario very clearly. The population which is moving from rural to urban are adopting the occupation from agriculture to industry and service sector.   
Migration is a two way process regarding demand of transport and telecommunication facility. At the place of origin of migration people migrate due to lack of facility and demand for improvement. Just like that at the destination migrants reach here for better opportunities which leads high population concentration and increase the demand for improvement in transport and telecommunication. Thus migration always demands for development. Such thing is very clear at figure below. In Bikaner district migrant people accept the increment of rail, road and telecommunication (89 percent and more). Such increment is a result of Indira Gandhi Canal project and strategic location of Bikaner. During canal development small settlement were created and connected with roads. Near these settlement market (mandi) area were also developed so that farmers may sell their crops to the market area. Further Bikaner has International Border with Pakistan so rail and road development is necessity for the security of Republic of India.
In Nagaur district people are continuously going out (other state and other countries) for different purposes. Due to movement, people were demanding to enhance the rail and road connectivity. By the time especially in recent years villages were connected to cities under Pradan Mantri Gramin Sadak Yojna (Prime Minister Rural Road Plan). This programme enhanced this facility in both the districts. In recent years many minerals were also explored in both the districts which also lead the enhancement of rail and road in both districts.

Source: Primary Field Survey at Bikaner and Nagaur District of Rajasthan, India.

Gosal and Krishan (1975) says that ‘spatial perspective inmigration has been characteristic of the following types of areas: urban- industrial concentration, plantation, new developed agricultural lands, multipurpose project sites and other areas with development activities, mining areas’. As it is clear that agriculture based country depends upon irrigation facility very much. The Indira Gandhi canal is playing a very important role for the migration in both the districts. In Bikaner district it has changed the demographic and agricultural landscape. This canal is providing irrigation and drinking water supply to the Bikaner district while in Nagaur district it only provides the drinking water. Thus canal is a prominent factor to attract the population in Bikaner district due to drinking and irrigation facility while Nagaur gets only drinking water supply in particular areas so it is not able to slow down the pace of out migration from Nagaur district.

 

Where irrigation and drinking water availability are prominent facilities in agriculture based developing country, at the same time educational institutions are also play very crucial role in migration. It is visible that educational institutions are continuously increasing in both districts. Comparatively Nagaur district is having more number of schools in compare to Bikaner district. Bikaner district have more high education institutes than Nagaur district i.e. Maharaja Ganga Singh University, Agriculture University, Veterinary and Animal Science University, 30 colleges and 10 other technical colleges and one medical college. These higher learning institutes are attracting student from all over the Rajasthan which shows in migration trend in Bikaner. While in Nagaur district higher education institutes are very limited so people have to out migrate for higher learning. Mahendra K. Premi (1980) also argues that ‘it is well established that people with higher educational attainment have higher achievement motivation and they become mobile, both socially and spatially’. 

Medical facility is also a prominent aspect for migration of people as well as education. Number of primary level medical facility is higher in Nagaur district than Bikaner district. But higher or advanced medical facility is available at Bikaner district than Nagaur. So Bikaner attracts people from not only nearby districts but also from nearby states like Punjab and Haryana. Bikaner has a medical college as well as Government hospital with super speciality facility. Cancer department is famous for cheap and better treatment at Bikaner. Train comes from Punjab is known as cancer train due to higher number of cancer patients in the passenger of that train. Nagaur district does not have higher order medical facility so people have to move nearby districts for such facility.

Medical facility is also a prominent aspect for migration of people as well as education. Number of primary level medical facility is higher in Nagaur district than Bikaner district. But higher or advanced medical facility is available at Bikaner district than Nagaur. So Bikaner attracts people from not only nearby districts but also from nearby states like Punjab and Haryana. Bikaner has a medical college as well as Government hospital with super speciality facility. Cancer department is famous for cheap and better treatment at Bikaner. Train comes from Punjab is known as cancer train due to higher number of cancer patients in the passenger of that train. Nagaur district does not have higher order medical facility so people have to move nearby districts for such facility.

 
Source: Primary Field Survey at Bikaner and Nagaur District of Rajasthan, India.

Migration also has negative consequences. Here in Bikaner and Nagaur districts some negative consequences have been observed i.e. child labour, alcohol consumption, environment pollution, street children problem, over use of public place, prostitution, murder and theft. Srivastva (1998) in the study of labour migration says that ‘uneven development between town and country has resulted in the movement of large labour migrants from one area to another’. Such movement open the ways for child labour also. In Bikaner district about 75 percent (rural) inmigrants are not observing child labour but rural outmigrants, urban migrants observe more than 60 percent. On the other hand in Nagaur district about 60 percent rural migrants are not observing while 60 percent of urban migrants are observing child labour.

 

The above logistic regression analysis has been carried out to examine the predicting factors of being a child-labour in Bikaner and Nagaur districts of Rajasthan. Result shows that prevalence of child-labour is found to be more among educated persons. Business and agriculture are the purpose of migration in Bikaner district. In Nagaur district, persons with good income have accepted child labour. It is clear that level of education reduce the chances of being child-labours. In both the districts, result reveals that as the level of education increases, the probability of being child labour decreases But in Bikaner district, it has been found that persons with education level ‘graduate and above’ are 21% more likely to experience child labour in comparison to illiterate persons. Agriculture and business are the occupations for existence of child labour and other places which promote child labour are industries, shops, hotels, construction sites, cattle rearing, and agriculture field. Illiterate person are most vulnerable to child labour practices. Mostly poor family promotes children to earn very early so that family can earn livelihood. High educated person are more aware about the child labour and society. Interestingly, in both the districts, OBC and general caste are found to experience more child labour in comparison to the scheduled caste. Persons who reported employment or landholdings with employment at the place of origins are found to experience more child labour in comparison to the persons who reported landholdings as the economic conditions at the place of origin in both Bikaner and Nagaur districts. Type of migration has different effects on child labour in Bikaner and Nagaur districts. In Bikaner, out-migrants are found to be slightly more likely to experience child labour than inmigrants but in Nagaur district, outmigrants are found to be 49% less likely to experience child labour in comparison to inmigrants.
Like child labour is a negative consequence, alcohol consumption is also another one. It is considered negative habit in Indian Culture. So, a few migrants (Bikaner around 25 percent and Nagaur around 31 percent) were accepting about the alcohol consumption freely. But they were accepting that alcohol consumption is high and it was done by other migrants. This practice very much prevails under the carpet in Indian society. The social taboos regarding alcohol consumption make it negative aspect of life. Thus people do not accept it openly.

Source: Primary Field Survey at Bikaner and Nagaur District of Rajasthan, India.

Further it is also observed when people move from one place to another then it is not possible for each of them to get a quality of area to settle down initially. They also suffer the different type of pollution while moving, working and dwelling. The initial settlement may be a squatter without basic amenities, sewage and some time without ventilation. Working place be with full of construction work. Such observation makes a perception about pollution of that area. By these perception migrants of Bikaner shows less pollution and Nagaur district migrants perceive more pollution around them. In both districts rural area is facing less this problem than urban area because urban area have more industry, vehicle and population.

 
Source: Primary Field Survey at Bikaner and Nagaur District of Rajasthan, India.

Migrants also create a squatter as mentioned above at place of destination. All migrants have no such purchasing or hiring capacity for higher standards houses. So they try to occupy public place where they can build their semi permanent houses. After few years these area convert into ghettos. Such phenomena are very common in urban area. Thus urban inmigrants lives such life. They accept the over use of public places where rural area do not face such problems at large scale.  

Although youth population always has dominance in migration but sometimes also move with family. These families have children who are get engagement in agriculture for small works (animal rearing, cutting and collection of fodder etc.) in rural area. But at the same time it is not possible for urban area. Where, parents work at construction site, factory etc. and they are not able to send their children either at school or at work place. So these children roam around the streets and commit a crime which spoils their life as well as parents. In rural area, more than 60 percent of migrants are not observing street children in both districts. In urban area, Bikaner district migrants observe less than 40 percent and Nagaur district migrants observe more than 60 percent.

 Migration not only suffers the problem of child labour, environment pollution, street children, alcohol consumption but also migration creates distance from their family and on another side low income prompts them to indulge in pity thing like prostitution, theft and murder for more income to get facility in life. But such acts never help them to come out from that situation and to get better facility in life.  Above mention acts come under crime in India so people easily never accept these acts publicly. Although during the survey some women admitted about the practices of prostitution. But they were not ready to provide detail about that due to the pressure of family and society. Such things are always concealed by the society. Murder cases were also accepted by the migrants in both the districts. These cases are higher in urban area rather than rural area. In compare the both districts in urban area, Nagaur district migrants accept higher than the Bikaner district migrants. The incidence of theft is also common in both the districts. Bikaner has more common in urban area than rural area while Nagaur have similar condition in rural and urban area.

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