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Significant amounts of detergents, cleaning products, and cosmetics are consumed daily, which contain various ingredients that have an adverse impact on the environment, irritate the skin, and even trigger allergies [1, 2]. Because of this, environmental challenges pertaining to the health and vitality of aquatic ecosystems have recently emerged in developing nations like India. One of the main causes of this is the widespread contamination of freshwater bodies by hazardous and bioaccumulative substances such as herbicides, pesticides, metals, dioxin, and detergents. Detergents are cleaning agents made from synthetic organic compounds [3]. Detergent made from biochemical sources is inexpensive to create, and it has an advantage over soaps because of its capacity to foam in acidic or hard water. The majority of the ingredients in detergents that really clean things are called surfactants. Surfactant content in commercial detergents ranges from 10 to 20%. Bleach, filler, foam stabiliser, builders, fragrances, soil-suspending agents, colours, optical brighteners, and other ingredients are included in the other components [4]. These are all meant to improve the cleaning action of the detergent and surfactants. According to Abel (1974), detergents are xenobiotic substances that are often washed into water bodies and are composed of a number of substances, the active mechanism of which is surface-active agents or surfactants [5]. Complex organic compounds called detergent surfactants combine hydrophilic and hydrophobic groups in one molecule [6–8]. The physicochemical characteristics of detergent with surfactant are what account for its high adsorption coefficient [9]. As a result of molecules adhering to suspended solids in water bodies, sediments along the water's course or sludge in treatment facilities are created [10,11]. Furthermore, fish such as Oncorhynchus mykiss had their enzymes, metabolites, electrolytes, and hemological parameters dramatically affected by contemporary detergent [12]. The accumulation of detergent in fish organs was observed by several researchers [13–15], indicating that detergent may be persistent in water and bioaccumulate in aquatic creatures' tissues. Depending on the kind and species of fish involved, detergents and pesticides have varying degrees of toxicity.

Hepatosomatic index (HSI), one of the organ-level biomarkers, is commonly linked to pollutant exposure [16,17]. The relative weight of the liver as a percentage of total body mass is how the HSI is calculated and is predicted to rise during stressful circumstances [18,19]. One of the indices most frequently linked to pollutant exposure is the HSI [20,21]. Similarly, the liver serves as the main organ for detoxification in fish [22,23] and is a key target organ for crucial metabolic processes. Additionally, the liver is the primary organ involved in the biotransformation of xenobiotics, becoming larger (hypertrophy), producing more hepatocytes (hyperplasia), or both [24–26].

The condition factor (CF) is an organism-level response to things like nutrition, pathogen effects, and exposures to dangerous substances that can make an organism weigh more or less than usual. The "coefficient of condition," also known as the length-weight factor, expresses how well-adjusted the fish are to their environment [27]. The fish has improved its condition when the condition factor value is greater. Stress, the time of year, and the availability of food are only a few variables that might have an impact on fish conditions [28]. Based on the idea that people weigh more when their conditions are better and there are more food resources available to them in a particular region, the condition factor is also a biomarker at the individual level [29] that is widely used to evaluate physiological conditions [30-32]. As a trade-off, it is necessary to cope with detoxification, which may result in less energy being available for development. It is considered that heavier fish for a given length are in better condition and might indicate fish fitness under metabolic stress produced by pollution. When exposed to different pollutants, fish CF is reported to decrease [33–35]. Additionally, the condition factor can change seasonally and is closely related to the availability of food [36].

Due to its high retail value, swift growth rate, and resistance to unfavourable environmental conditions, particularly low dissolved oxygen content, Asian snakehead fish (Channa punctata) are a species of considerable importance in freshwater in India and Asian nations. Less research has looked into how detergents affect the growth and developmental phases of ASH fish.

LC₅₀ value and sublethal concentration

Plotting the mortality rate of carp against the logarithmic concentration of HHD over a 96-hour period produced a sigmoid curve. The relationship between probit mortality and log concentration was observed to have a linear trend. Consequently, the LC₅₀ value was determined by graphically analyzing the percent mortality and probit mortality data. The LC₅₀ value for HHD in AASHF, determined to be 60.00 mg/L after a 96-hour exposure, was used as the mean LC₅₀ value. Additionally, a sublethal concentration of about 1/5^th of the LC₅₀ value (12.00 mg/L) was selected for subsequent investigations in this study.

Body weight and Index

The body weights of the AASHS were assessed at a sublethal dose of 12.0 mg/L. The weights of AASHFs were recorded as 31.7 g, 31.9 g, 32.0 g, and 32.3 g after 4, 7, 14, and 21 days, respectively, in a controlled environment. During the course of detergent exposure, the recorded weights (in g) were 30.9, 27.3, 25.3, and 23.2 after 4, 7, 14, and 21 days, respectively. The average body weight of the fish subjected to HHD decreased in contrast to the control group that was not exposed, starting on day 7 and continuing until day 21. The highest drop was seen on 21 days in comparison to the control fish. The observed reduction in body weight has statistical significance (p<0.05).

Organ weight and Index

Experiments showed that mean organ weight of liver and kidney does not remain constant throughout the days under study. This is applicable for both control and treated AASHFs. The weight of liver was found to be 0.96 g in control experiment. Further, 0.93 g, 0.90 g, 0.63 g and 0.55 g were found after 4, 7, 14 and 21 days exposure of HDD, respectively. Similarly, the weight of kidney was found to be 0.68 g in control experiment. Further, 0.63 g, 0.60 g, 0.51 g and 0.45 g were found after 4, 7, 14 and 21 days exposure of HDD, respectively. The weight of liver and kidney of exposed AASHFs although decreased at both the concentrations, were however, not significantly lower in comparison to unexposed control (Figure 1) on the 7^th day. But the decrease in liver and kidney weight were significant (p<0.05) at 12.0 mg/L concentrations on the 21^th day. The maximum decrease in organ weight was noticed on the 21^th day, which was statistically significant (p<0.05).

Fig. 1 Variations in the weight (g) of organs of AASHFs exposed to 12.0 mg/L of HHD after 4, 7, 14, and 21 days (a) liver, (b) kidney

The condition factor (K) and organosomatic indices, namely the hepatosomatic index (HSI) and the kidney-somatic index (KSI), are commonly employed in assessing the detrimental effects of pollutants on an individual's general well-being and physical condition. Consequently, this research was conducted to evaluate physiological variables at different durations of exposure in order to examine the effects of HHD on the overall health status of individuals with AASHFs. Fig. 2 illustrates the outcomes pertaining to the K, HSI, and KSI values obtained from the experimental groups consisting of control subjects and fish specimens subjected to a concentration of 12.00 mg/L of HHD. The mean values of K were observed at four different time intervals: 96 hours, 7 days, 14 days, and 21 days. These values were found to be 1.0348, 0.9336, 0.8930, and 0.8455, respectively. A gradual decrease in the K values was observed with increasing exposure durations, specifically up to a maximum of 21 days, in comparison to the control group. The fish from the control groups had HSI and KSI values of 3.095 and 2.173, respectively. The HSI of AASHFs was significantly lower than that of their controls after 14 and 21 days (p<00.05) (Figure 2b). In a similar vein, it was observed that the KSI values exhibited a significant drop (p<0.05) of 5.31% and 4.96% after 14 and 21 days, respectively, as compared to the untreated fish (Fig. 2c).

Fig. 2 (a) Changes in the Condition Factor (-K), (b) hepatosomatic index (HSI) and (c) kidney somatic index of C. punctata fish exposed to 12.0 g/L of HHD after 4, 7, 14 and 21 days of exposure

Discussion

Although toxic effects of other detergents, surfactants, or pesticides on biochemical parameters in Asian snakehead fish have been documented [41–47], no thorough investigation of the effects of common household detergent on the weight gain or loss of various individual tissues or changes in behaviour has been done. Furthermore, it had not been thoroughly determined to what extent even sub-lethal concentrations of HHD at the lowest exposure could influence tissue weight. It is clear from the findings above that even sublethal concentrations of HHD caused considerable weight loss in fish over the course of 21 days. It also has to do with periods and HHD dosages. To preserve homeostasis after exposure to a toxin, enzymatic pathways can undergo modifications. Modifications could occur in either a catabolic (e.g., protein synthesis for tissue repair) or anabolic (e.g., usage of lipid reserves to fulfill stressor-induced energy demands) process [48,49]. As a result, the current experiment's loss of body weight also reveals that HHD has a significant impact on metabolic processes. This finding is also generally in line with [50]. Following the exposure of AASHF to HHD, there has been an increase in HSI. This is a result of the fish's efforts to adjust to the toxin's presence. By alteration the liver's size, the organism tries to improve the liver's ability to detoxify the chemical. This is accomplished either by increasing the size of each newly formed liver cell (hypertrophy) or by increasing the number of cells in the liver (hyperplasia). Both the liver and kidneys are very good at getting rid of toxins. This suggests that the alteration in RSI may be caused by the toxic effects of the HHD making the kidneys work too hard [51,52].

The liver and kidney tissues of C. punctata fish that were exposed to 12.0 mg/L of HHD lost 6.25 and 11.76% of their weight, respectively, over the course of seven days (Fig. 1). Changes in condition factor (K) and hepatosomatic index (HSI) were noticed in juvenile Clarias gariepinus during their exposure to sublethal amounts of the surfactant linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS). [53]. In their study, Agbohessi et al. (54) observed a reduction in K levels and HSI in populations of G. tilapia and African catfish inhabiting a cotton basin with significant pesticide contamination. In a study conducted by Gandar et al. (55), the authors examined the impact of temperature and the presence of seven pesticides on the behaviour and metabolism of C. auratus. The results of their investigation revealed that there were no significant variations in the K values between the control group and the experimental group of fish. In contrast, a noteworthy decrease in the HSI values of fish subjected to a concentration of 8.4 g/L of pesticides was seen when compared to the control group. This discovery was derived from an analysis conducted to examine the impact of the concurrent application of seven pesticides in conjunction with temperature. Furthermore, Bacchetta et al. (56) observed that the K and HSI values of P. mesopotamicus fish, when subjected to individual exposure to low doses of endosulfan and lambda-cyhalothrin, did not exhibit any statistically significant alterations. In contrast, the fish exposed to the mixed mixture exhibited noteworthy decreases in both K and HSI values in comparison to the fish that were not exposed to the mixture. Velisek et al. [57] observed negligible alterations in the biometric indices (K and HSI) of common carp fish following exposure to a concentration of 0.06 g/L of simazine in the aquatic environment. Based on the outcomes of the investigation, alterations in the K and HSI metrics of fish exhibit a reliance on the levels and volume of pollution. According to the aforementioned data, the fish subjected to contamination stress exhibited a drop in their HSI values. This phenomenon might likely be attributed to the use of biomolecules' stored energy reserves for the purpose of preserving homeostasis rather than allocating them towards somatic growth. Hence, the observed reduction in HSI and KSI by 12.0 mg/L in HHD-exposed C. punctata fish in this study provides evidence that even minimal exposure to HHD can lead to a decline in the mass of vital tissue in fish, potentially impeding their overall health and development.

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