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Migration has been a feature of human existence for centuries. Humans have always migrated in groups or individuals to seek freedom from war and conflict, to escape hunger and poverty, to find new economic opportunities and employment. Every individual wishes to get employed to have a source of more or less steady flow of incomes. So, if an individual wanted to flee a conflict area or cannot find job in his current location, then he can decide to move out of that place and relocate to some other region in search of freedom or peace and employment. This phenomenon is regarded as migration of labour. Migration of labour as casual and unskilled workers move about systematically from one region to another offering their services on a temporary, usually seasonal basis. Various forms of migrant labour is found in different countries such as international migration which means crossing the boundaries that separate one country from another, internal migration which refers to a move from one administrative area (a state, union territory and district) to another within the same country. Migrant labourers are poor agricultural labourers, marginal farmers, illiterate, unskilled, ignorant and seasonally unemployed, not access to basic health care facilities and other amenities. These labourers are highly vulnerable on account of their lack of physical assets and human capabilities coupled with their initial conditions of extreme poverty and low social status. This results in their low bargaining power in the labour market that further reinforces their already vulnerable state and traps them into a vicious circle of poverty and deprivation.

Rashmi Upadhyay,[1] in her paper “The Embodiment of Fear among Migrant workers,” dwell into the fear encountered by the Nepalese migrant workers working in the coal mines of Jaintia Hills. Their difficult and dangerous journey from their native place to reach their destination. But in spite of that they keep on their head high to reach their destination. Rashmi Upadhyay and Geetika Ranjan[2] in their paper “Investment of Remittances in the Villages of Eastern Nepal: An Ethnographic Exploration of Coal mine Workers of Meghalaya,” talk about how the coal mines of Meghalaya have witnessed a steady flow of migrant workers from Nepal. Despite the risks, the Nepalese migrant workers are ready to take the job because the earning here is high and brisk. Except for those who have settled permanently in Jaintia Hills, most of them sent their earning to their native village back in Nepal. Through these earning they were being able to move out of their poverty stricken village to a more developed villages or cities. These studies focus on the migrant labourers from Nepal. As the coal mine of Jaintia Hills attracted not only the Nepalese migrant workers but migrant workers from other states of India and the other districts of Meghalaya, it is important that focus on all these migrant workers is also important.

One of the most significant impacts of mining activity is the migration of people into a mine area.[1] Migration of labourers into Jaintia Hills is also regarded as one of the significant impact of coal mining which was started in the mid-1970s. At that time majority of the people are engaged in agricultural activities. Some landless farmers who work as agricultural labourers started work in the coal mines. But of lack of experience and difficult working condition, many of the local refuse to work in the coal mines. Thus, initially mining activity in the district face a shortage of labour. But soon news spread to other districts of the state of the new economic activity and opportunity that had come up in the district of Jaintia Hills. Some men from Khasi Hills region mainly from Sohra area[2] travelled to the district to try their luck in this new economic activity and opportunity. In 1973, a person from Diengsong along with some friends came to the district with the purpose of working in the coal mines of the district. Seeing the benefit and opportunity available in the district he soon brought his wife, other family members and friends to the region.[3] They were responsible in spreading the news of the job opportunity available in Jaintia Hills in and around their villages. By the 1976, some from Laitryngew and Pyrda Kukon villages also came to Jaintia Hills District to work in the coal mines. By the 1980s and 1990s some from Mairang, Mawkyrwat, Mylliem, and Nongstoin also migrated to the district in search of a livelihood. They migrated to Jaintia Hills to work in the coal mines and other economic activities due to lack of job opportunity and poverty at their native place. They were also motivated and attracted by the high wage paid by the coal mine owners. Gradually, from the 1980s coal mining activities has been accelerating ever since and the demand for coal from outside the states beyond Assam is also increasing. Coal mining activity is highly labour intensive. At that time the use of machines remain unknown, although explosive are often used to break the coal seams. So, in order to increase the output as well as to meet the demand of coal in the market, the coal mines owners do not have any other option but to hire labourers from outside the state and neighbouring countries to meet the shortage of labourers to work in the underground mines.[4]

Migrant labourers, who work as labourers in the coal mines of Jaintia Hills can be found in large number. The reasons of high migration rate are due to their poverty, unemployment and declining natural resources. Besides internal armed conflict and political unrest intensified their migration. Furthermore, the Peace and Friendship Treaty between India and Nepal signed in 1950[5] is also one of the factor for Nepalese migrants to migrate to India especially to the coal mines in Jaintia Hills District of Meghalaya to work as labourers in coal mining activities.[6] In addition, illegal migrant labourers from Bangladesh were also reported working in the coal mines of Jaintia Hills District, Meghalaya[7]. Thus, due to lack of competition from the local people, this job are preferably favour to migrant labourers who are ever ready to work under any working conditions and wage.[8]

The absent of government mechanisms such as Inner Line Permit (ILP) and written record from coal mine owners, the accurate numbers of migrant labourers are very difficult to obtain. Furthermore, coal mine owners and coal operators do not want to disclose the number of migrant labourers working under them fearing crack downs by local organisation who are accusing them as outsiders.[9] The population of this unaccounted migrant labourers in Jaintia Hills District can be justified from their present in and near the coal mining villages especially on market day at the weekly markets.[10]

Migrant labourers can be categorized into two category. The first category were the one who were directly recruited in coal mining activities and the coal mines as miner, trolley puller, back carrier, loader, sordar, middlemen (munshi), etc. These were mostly from Nepal and Assam. The migration of people from Nepal (referred as Nepalese migrant) to work as labourers in the coal mines of Jaintia Hills is more (about 61 %)[11] as compared to other migrant labourers. In addition to the migrant labourer from Nepal, migrant labourers from Assam mostly the Assam Nepalese, Kacharis, Bodo and Bengali were also directly recruited in the coal mining activities.[12]

Though, a few of these migrant labourers migrated to the coal mining area of Jaintia towards the end of the 1970s, yet most of them migrated during the 1980s and 1990s. The migrant labourers working in the coal mines of Jaintia Hills District includes both the first and second generation labourers. The first generation migrant labourer is usually an adult member of a family who migrated with his friends or co-workers. Some of these migrant labourers come along with the sordar who usually helped the coal mines owners to bring labourers from his native place or from other places. Further, these labourers also brought their families, motivates their relatives and friends to come along with them to work in the coal mines. In this way the process of migration of labourers from the first half of 1980s continued. The second generation migrants are those whose parents had migrated long before as unskilled labourers for coal mining and its related activities. Most of these migrant workers work for more than twenty to thirty years in the coal mine of Jaintia Hills.[13]

They lived in unhygienic makeshift tents near the worksite with no safe drinking water, toilets and other basic facilities. It is more susceptible to infections diseases. Further, the work are imperilled as they had to work in a very poor working conditions without any safety gears in the dangerous underground mines.[14] The dwelling and working conditions of the underground mines is accepted as a part of their success and fortune. The migrant labourers saw danger and they are still ready to work in the poor and dangerous condition of deep underground coal mines hoping to survive and receive something for a sustenance.[15]

The other category of migrant workers were the one who came to fill in the gap in the non-mining economic activities like traders, shop keepers, construction work, furniture work, electrician, mechanic, etc. that had come up along with coal mining activities. These migrant workers are from Assam, West Bengal, Bihar, Rajasthan, etc. Migrant workers of these category can be mostly found in the commercial centres of Jaintia Hills. They engage themselves in trade, run shop dealing in various articles, provide service in the form of construction work, mechanic, electrician, etc.[16]

The paper is prepared based on the secondary sources available in the form of books, online articles primary source in the form of field work.

1. https://www.striking-women-.org/module/migration/history-migration accessed on 23rd June 2023

2. http://www.britannica.com/topic/migrant-labour accessed on 18th June 2023

3. NCEUS (2007). Report on Condition s of Work and Promotion of Livelihoods in the Unorganised Sector. Other Disadvantaged Workers: Migrants, Child and Bonded Labourers. New Delhi: National Commission For Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector(NCEUS). https://dcmsme.gov.in/condition_of_workers_sep_2007.pdf accessed on 18th June 2023

4. R. Bhattrai, R. Open Borders, Closed Citizenships:Nepali Labor Migrants in Delhi, Institute of Social Studies, The Netherlands, 2007, https://lib.icimod.org/record/12980 accessed on 19th June 2023.

5. Tribune, The Assam. even illegal Bangladeshi migrants held in Meghalaya.15th September 2010. https://assamtribune.com/seven-illegal-bangladeshi-migrants-held-in-meghalaya. 19th June 2023.

6. Field Work conducted on 11th April 2022 (F. Rymbai, interview)

7. https://www.academia.edu/3823260/COAL_MINING_AND_ITS_SOCIAL_ IMPACT_IN_JAINTIA_HILLS accessed on 5th May 2020

8.https://www.academia.edu/35150296/THE_EMBODIMENT_OF_FEAR_AMONG_ MIGRANT_WORKERS, accessed on 17th April 2022

9.https://www.academia.edu/36959942/INVESTMENT_OF_REMITTANCES_IN_THE_ VILLAGES_OF_EASTERN_NEPAL accessed on 17th April 2022

10. Field work conducted on 10th May 2023

11. Field work conducted on 5th June 2023

12. Field Work conducted on 20th June 2023

13. Field Work conducted on 12th January 2022

14. Field Work conducted on 11th April 2022

15. Field Work conducted on 10th June 2022

16. Field Work conducted on 2nd December 2021

17. Field Work conducted on 10th December 2021

18. Field Work conducted on 12th December 2021

1 https://www.striking-women-.org/module/migration/history-migration accessed on 23rd June 2023
2 http://www.britannica.com/topic/migrant-labour accessed on 18th June 2023
3 NCEUS (2007). Report on Condition s of Work and Promotion of Livelihoods in the Unorganised Sector.
Other Disadvantaged Workers: Migrants, Child and Bonded Labourers. New Delhi: National Commission For
Enterprises in the Unorganised Sector(NCEUS). https://dcmsme.gov.in/condition_of_workers_sep_2007.pdf accessed on 18th June 2023
4 https://www.academia.edu/35150296/THE_EMBODIMENT_OF_FEAR_AMONG_ MIGRANT_WORKERS, accessed on 17th April 2022
5https://www.academia.edu/36959942/INVESTMENT_OF_REMITTANCES_IN_THE_ VILLAGES_OF_EASTERN_NEPAL accessed on 17th April 2022
6 https://pubs.iied.org/sites/default/files/pdfs/migrate/G00901.pdf accessed on 11th March 2020
Sohra areas comprises villages such as Laitryngew, Diengsong, Pyrda kukon in Khasi Hills region were the first coal mining activity in Meghalaya had taken place since 1840s during the British rule in India. The local people were involved in coal mining activity and over a period of time, they have gained more experience in coal mining mainly in underground rat-hole mines. These expertise in coal mining were passed from generation to generation. Hence these labourers from Sohra area who are working in the coalmines of Jaintia Hills District are part of the said generation.
7 Field work conducted on 10th May 2023
8 Field work conducted on 29th June 2023
9 Nepal and India share a peculiar relationship from the ancient ages. They share the similar culture, the Hindi language of India is easy to understand and learn to the Nepali citizen. The political ties between both the countries has also facilitated for migration from either of the countries to the other. The Peace and Friendship Treaty of 1950 between the two countries provide the similar rights to the citizens of the other country in its land as is available to the citizen of that country, except voting rights.
10 R. Bhattrai, R. Open Borders, Closed Citizenships:Nepali Labor Migrants in Delhi, Institute of Social Studies, The Netherlands, 2007, https://lib.icimod.org/record/12980 accessed on 19th June 2023.
11 Tribune, The Assam. even illegal Bangladeshi migrants held in Meghalaya.15th September 2010. https://assamtribune.com/seven-illegal-bangladeshi-migrants-held-in-meghalaya. 19th June 2023.