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“The Encyclopaedia of Britannica, in its survey of libraries of the world, mentions Saraswati Mahal Library as the most remarkable library in India.”[1]

Saraswati Mahal Library, which is amongst the oldest libraries in Asia, is located in Tanjore, Tamil Nadu. The collection of manuscripts and papers totalling around 60,000 consists of a rare collection of palm-leaf manuscripts in various Indian languages like Tamil, Telugu, Marathi, and Sanskrit. During the Nayaka rule in Tanjore (1535-1675), a library was created and developed to collect and preserve the manuscripts. Originally named “Saraswati Bhandar”[2], it exclusively housed Indian manuscripts and papers, and foreign literature was not yet available. The Saraswati Mahal Library was established as a royal library for the Maratha kings of Tanjore. This was done by assimilating and expanding the Saraswati Bhandar of Nayaka rulers and adding more Enlightenment literature of the Western world into the collection.

Raja Serfoji II (r. 1798-1832), who was an eminent scholar and a man of learning and arts, took particular interest in the library. He took great interest in the library's enrichment. Raja Serfoji II was unlike any other native prince in 19th-century India. He was educated under the guidance of Rev. Charles Schwartz, who was entrusted with the education of the little Prince by his late father Raja Tulaja of Tanjore. Through Schwartz, Raja Serfoji II was introduced to Western ideas and knowledge systems. By the early 19th century, Raja Serfoji II was considered a learned man and a savant king, while Tanjore had already ‘emerged as a centre of enlightenment’. Raja Serfoji II inherited a vast collection of Sanskrit, Marathi and Tamil records and manuscripts from his predecessors. What made him unique was that he dedicatedly added more to this collection and was amongst the first to have Enlightenment literature in various European languages as part of his collection. He later expanded his collection and established it as the Saraswati Mahal Library in Tanjore. The library became the centre of attraction for European missionaries, visitors and colonial officials, who often borrowed books from Raja Serfoji II’s collection.

Existing works on history of Saraswati Mahal Library, Tanjore Enlightenment and Raja Serfoji II are very few and even then don’t establish the link explicitly. The question as to how Raja Serfoji II was able to carve out a knowledge centre in Tanjore without any political or military power at the edges of the European sphere is the focus of recent research[3]. Similar works delineating modernity in Raja Serfoji II’s worldview through his endeavors in education[4], help in understanding the cultural encounters. Majority of the works on Raja Serfoji II focus on his accomplishments in the field of health sciences, namely cosmetics[5], ophthalmics[6] and his style of medical pluralism[7]. The role of Tanjore printing press and how Raja Serfoji II established Tanjore as a center of knowledge production has also garnered interest[8]. Few works are on Saraswati Mahal Library which describe and discuss the collection in detail but fall short of drawing parallels with the ideals of Enlightenment period.[9]

In the course of this historical research, we undertook a comprehensive methodology to unravel the multifaceted narrative surrounding the Saraswati Mahal Library. The research journey began with an exhaustive literature review, wherein we explored relevant secondary sources, scholarly works, historical accounts, and primary documents pertaining to the library, Raja Serfoji II, and the socio-historical milieu of the period. This laid the groundwork for identifying existing knowledge gaps and formulating research objectives. Subsequently, we conducted extensive visits to significant archival repositories, including the Saraswati Mahal Library itself, gaining access to a trove of primary source materials such as documents, manuscripts, letters, and records. The present research relied mainly upon the primary sources in the form of the Tamil Nadu State Archives, Egmore, Chennai (TNSA): Tanjore District Records, 1790-1832; Modi documents and Serfoji’s personal collection at Saraswati Mahal Library; furthermore Madras Courier newspaper and the Government Gazette, Madras for the time period under study were consulted. Also, various secondary sources were used in this study as well. These materials played a pivotal role in reconstructing the library's genesis and its historical trajectory. Document analysis followed, involving a meticulous examination of primary source materials and artifacts, which were instrumental in shaping the research narrative. Contextualization was paramount, as I delved into the broader political, social, and intellectual climate in Tanjore during the reign of Raja Serfoji II. This contextualization was essential for comprehending the library's role in the enlightenment efforts of the period. The approach sought to discern distinctive features and contributions, thereby enriching the research framework.

Library’s Collection

The Library was stocked with a variety of books and works from India’s Sanskrit learning centres, some of which were collected, some were bought, and others were copied from the original copy. The majority of manuscripts are in “Sanskrit, numbering around 39,300, and are written in various script styles like Grantha, Devanagari, Nandinagari and Telugu”[10]. Tamil titles usually comprise texts on medicine, literature and music. The library has a collection of “3076 Marathi manuscripts”[11] from the period 17th century to 19th century. These manuscripts were usually written on palm leaf and sometimes on paper. In total, there are over 800 Telugu manuscripts, which are primarily written on palm leaf. There are also “22 Persian and 19 Urdu manuscripts”[12].

Apart from these manuscripts, usually meant for intellectual improvement, there are about 1342 bundles of Marathi Raj records available at the Library. The Maratha Raj records were written in Modi script of the Marathi language. These records encompass the knowledge of the political, cultural, and social administration of the Maratha Kings of Tanjore. Many Royal palace libraries in India were destroyed or lost due to war and conflict. Mysore Nawab Tipu Sultan had a library in his palace, which was later taken over by the British in 1799 and various books of the library were scattered around. We can find some of those books in the library of the Asiatic Society in Calcutta. Raja Serfoji knew about the Mysorean library and had a “descriptive catalogue of that library prepared by Chris Stewart of Cambridge University”[13]. Thus, we can assume that Raja Serfoji was aware of the fate of the palace libraries in India, and his “decision of making accord with British administrators helped to preserve this treasure house of knowledge”[14].

Raja Serfoji II was a scholar of great intellect and wrote various works in Sanskrit and Marathi. He enriched the collection of the library through various literary activities. He employed Pundits in various fields and encouraged them to write valuable works for the benefit of the public. Raja Serfoji II had his legal luminaries, well-versed in Dharamshastras, create a standard legal text called Vyavahara Prakasa. Similarly, through his health institution, Dhanvantari Mahal, which was engaged in research on various medical systems like Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha and Allopathy, he helped create recipes for various medicinal preparations and disease charts for physicians in the form of 18 volumes. The ophthalmic section of Dhanvantari Mahal maintained detailed case sheets of different patients. These case sheets included pictures of the eye before treatment, the date of admission, the procedure followed, the treatment progress and the condition after treatment. These case sheets represent the earliest version of such research activity anywhere worldwide and are still preserved in the library. Raja Serfoji II was also a great composer and musician. Many of the musical compositions created by Raja Serfoji were in Indian languages, and he also collected over 150 musical notation books. His hand-written musical notation copies are also in the Library.

Serfoji’s Book Collection

Serfoji also enriched this library by acquiring various other items such as books, maps, drawings, and lithographic engravings. “His multi-focal attraction led to the acquisition of over 3830 books in the English language. He also had over 400 French books, 108 German books, 35 Danish books, and a few books in Greek, Dutch, and Latin languages”[15]. Saraswati Mahal Library has the richest collection of books on European languages and literature. The library housed the most comprehensive collection of books on medicine, chemistry, natural history, astronomy etc. The collection also included travel accounts, voyage journals, almanacs, dictionaries, self-help books, European periodicals, encyclopaedias etc. Serfoji used to put down his autograph on all the books in his collection, along with the date of acquisition. These books were primarily printed in Europe, and the year of publication spans from 1696 to 1830.

Rare Books

Some of the rare books and manuscripts are “the Madras Almanac printed in 1807, Lavoisier’s ‘The Elements of Chemistry’, the notes of Bishop Heber on Raja Serfoji II, correspondence letters of William Torin of London (former Resident of Tanjore and who purchased a lot of books and materials for Raja Serfoji II), Dr Johnson’s dictionary (5th edition, 1784) in two volumes, a pictorial Bible from 1791, the first edition of Fourcroy’s major work on the General System of Chemical Knowledge in eleven volumes, George Buffon’s 36 volumes of Natural History of the Earth (1749-1785)”[16].

Books on Travel History

Travel and exploration books formed one of the emerging genres of literature during the Enlightenment age. It represented the Enlightenment ideal of curiosity and discovery. These books on travels and voyages give firsthand accounts of the places visited and record the events of that period. The Saraswati Mahal Library has a vast collection of travel books. Some of them are: “The Travels of Ibn Battuta in two volumes by Samuel Lee, published in 1829; A Voyage in the Indian Ocean in two volumes, published in London in 1803; Travels from England to India in two volumes by Major John Taylor published at London in 1821; A Narrative of Campaign in India by Dirom published at London in 1793; A View of the Taj Mahal at the City of Agra published at London in 1798; Journeys of the Sieges of the Madras Army in 1817-19 by Edward Lake published at London in 1825; Robert Perivale’s book ‘An account of the Island of Ceylon’ containing its history, geography, natural history, with manners and customs of its inhabitants; and Viscount Valentia’s ‘Voyages and Travels to India, Ceylon, the Red Sea, Abbyssinia and Egypt’ gives historical accounts of various places; The History of Hindostan in two volumes by Dow Alexander published at London in 1770; etc”[17].

Maps and Atlases

The maps and atlases collected by Raja Serfoji are valuable for historians. They provide insight into ancient history, sea routes, political divisions and other geographical details. During his years of education at Madras, Rev. Schwartz encouraged him to learn some Geography with the help of the globe that Col. Braithwaite gifted him, “as you live in the world, you ought to know something of the world which God created”[18].

The oldest printed book in the library is an atlas, printed in the years 1692, 1693 and 1696. The atlas is in French language, giving both the descriptions of the countries and navigational routes, the atlas contained 78 plates with maps. The old maps show us the names of places which are not in use anymore, like for maps printed in the 18th or 19th century, we can see India being labelled as ‘Hindoostan’ or the ‘Mogul Empire’, Australia as New Holland, Japan as Nippon etc. Some of the notable maps and atlases in Raja Serfoji II’s collection include: “Maps of the World Showing the Tracks and Discoveries of Captain Cook, by P.J. Rusell, published in London in 1811, which consists of 29 plates; Maps of the world with Captain Cooks tracts by Lauri Whittle, London, 1800; An Atlas to Guthrie’s Geographical Grammar; The chronology and history of the world by John Blair, London, 1814; The Small British Atlas: Maps of England and Wales by John Racquet, 1764; Geographia Classica: Geography of the ancients as contained in Greek and Latin classics by Hermon Moll, 1721; Map of the Dominions Mysoor at the death of Chick Deo Raj Wadiyar in 1704 by Lieutenant Colonel Mackenzie, London, 1810; Sketches showing the different roads through the peninsula of India under the presidency of Fort St. George; Map illustrative of the history of the life and times of Hyder Ali Khan and his descendants by Lieutenant Colonel Wilks”[19].

Pictures and Drawings

Pictorial books and drawings depicting various views of scenarios, towns, temples, countryside, forts, battles, rivers, etc. were also part of Raja Serfoji II’s collection. Some interesting pictorial books are “costumes of various countries, view of Burma, view of Mysore, Himalayan views, Chinese punishments etc.”[20]. Lithographic drawings were also collected by Raja Serfoji, including the famous ‘Human Physiognomy Pictures’ by Charles LeBrun, a French artist and ‘The pictures of oriental scenarios of Hindoostan’ by Daniel brothers etc.

Other Collections

Apart from books and manuscripts, mythological pictures; botanical specimen paintings; military costumes; Chitra Ramayana; elaborately decorated Tanjore style paintings on wood, canvas, glass; and about five thousand illustrated paper paintings such as Gaja Shastra, Aswa Shastra etc. were all part of the intricately put together Enlightenment library of Raja Serfoji II.

The library also housed collections of “miniature paintings, miniature manuscripts and manuscripts of micrographic writings”[21], one brilliant example of that is the manuscript titled ‘Shivaprapancharatna strotam’, in which each letter is made up of the microscopic term ‘ShivaShiva’.

Library Catalogues

Raja Serfoji II is also credited with introducing the preparation of library catalogues for the first time. Though the core collection of manuscripts under Saraswati Bhandar of Nayaka rulers started in the 16th century, it was only during Raja Serfoji II’s reign that we see the first catalogue of the library. “The catalogue of palm leaf manuscripts was prepared in palm leaf form and for paper manuscripts in paper form”[22].

The process of preparation of a catalogue was started in 1801 for palm-leaf manuscripts. Later, in 1840, Raja Shivaji II ordered the preparation of updated catalogues, and again in 1857, on orders of Tanjore District Collector Mr. Forbes. A catalogue for Sanskrit manuscripts was prepared by A.C. Burnell on the orders of the Governor of Madras in 1871, which was subsequently published in London in 1879 and 1880. After the library passed into the hands of the Madras Government under the Cultural Endowments Act of 1918, the process of creating descriptive catalogues was started. Through these, 62 volumes of catalogues were prepared for manuscripts. 

Raja Serfoji II also prepared a catalogue for his personal book collection in 1830, with 27 subject headings titles were arranged alphabetically under each subject.

1.Karkar, S. C. 2009. The Top Ten Temple Towns of India. p. 80.

2.Arokaiswamy I. et al. 2020. The Saraswathi Mahal Library and Contribution of Raja Serfoji II. Gorteria Journal, vol. 33 (11), p. 47.

3. Nair, S. P. 2012. Raja Serfoji II: Science, Medicine and Enlightenment in Tanjore.

4.Peterson, I.V., 2013. The schools of Serfoji II of Tanjore: Education and princely modernity in early nineteenth-century India. In Trans-Colonial Modernities in South Asia. p. 15-44.

5.Patkar, K., 2008. Herbal cosmetics in ancient India. Indian Journal of Plastic Surgery, 41(S 01), p.134-137.

6.Biswas, J., Badrinath, V. and Badrinath, S.S., 2012. Ophthalmic contributions of Raja Serfoji II (1798–1832). Indian Journal of Ophthalmology, 60(4), p.297.

7.Nair, S.P., 2012. Diseases of the Eye: Medical Pluralism at the Tanjore Court in the Early Nineteenth Century. Social history of medicine, 25(3), p.573-588.

8.Nair, S.P., 2011. ‘… Of real use to the people’ The Tanjore printing press and the spread of useful knowledge. The Indian Economic & Social History Review, 48(4), p.497-529.

9.Perumal, P., 2012. The Sanskrit Manuscripts in Tamilnadu. In Aspects of manuscript culture in South India. p. 157-172.

10.Bhonsle, P. S. S. R. 2017. Contributions of Thanjavur Maratha Kings. p. 204.

11.Ibid.

12.Ibid.

13.Appasamy, J. 1980. Indian Paintings on Glass.

14.Ibid.

15.Mildred and Archer. 1955. Indian Paintings for the British.

16.Bhonsle, P. S. S. R. 2017. Contributions of Thanjavur Maratha Kings. p. 204-205.

17.Ibid. p. 205-206.

18.Nair, S. P. 2012. Raja Serfoji II: Science, Medicine and Enlightenment in Tanjore. p. 6.

19.Bhonsle, P. S. S. R. 2017. Contributions of Thanjavur Maratha Kings. p. 207.

20.Ibid. p. 208.

21.Ibid. p. 208.

22.Ibid. p. 209.

23.Ibid. p. 213.