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Urbanization is acknowledged as a representation of progress and, simultaneously, a strain on available resources. The latter aspect is especially critical in a developing nation like India, where the process of urbanization is quite rapid. The key reasons for this include migration from rural to urban areas and small cities to larger metros. This results in various issues such as unplanned urban expansion, overcrowding, insufficient housing options, high rates of unemployment and limited access to basic services, among other challenges.

An undeniable result of urbanization in India has been the persistence and growth of informal settlements or slums in rapidly developing cities. It is imperative to dwell upon whether the living conditions in Indian urban slums are a poverty trap or constitute a path to human development. The UN-Habitat defines a slum at the household level using housing deprivations as criteria. Essentially a household is a slum dweller if it lacks one or more of the following elements:

1. Secured tenure

2.  Housing with adequate space

3. Access to sanitation

4. Access to adequate drinking water

5. Housing with proper structure to protect it against climate conditions

A combination of the historical poverty of India, as well as rapid but uneven urbanization and development, has risked exacerbating the slum problem in the country. Many Indian cities today face problems in coping up with their population growth. They are unable to provide basic services like education, healthcare, sanitation and law and order to many of its citizens.

Over the decades, slums in India have risen drastically. As per the 2011 census year, the slum dwelling population in the nation went to 65.5 million from 27.9 million in 1981. Slums accounted for around 17.37 % of the total urban population in 2011. It becomes critical for the nation to put emphasis on slum development and create scalable urban systems that are capable for integrating, housing and employing this increasing number of people.

Bergel (1955) provided a detailed depiction of slum neighborhoods and their underlying causes for expansion. He categorized slums into three distinct types:

1. The first type includes original slum area that comprises of buildings not suitable for living

2. The second type involves middle-class individuals relocating to lower socioeconomic classes due to a lack of affordable and adequate housing options.

3. The third one involves unpleasant areas created due to overcrowding in urban areas.

Desai and Pillai (1972) mentioned that slums represent an undeniable reality and an unavoidable occurrence linked with urban expansion. Their book, "A Profile of an Indian Slum," provides a comprehensive global perspective on slums. It encompasses descriptions of slum areas in America, Latin America, and particularly emphasizes a detailed discussion on Asian city slums. The authors vividly portray the conditions of slums in India, highlighting specific local names such as 'Katras' in Delhi, 'Bustees' in Kolkata, 'Zopadpattis' in Mumbai, and 'Cheris' in Chennai. These million-mark cities do harbor large slums. The authors, moreover, also mention that a large amount of congestion in Delhi and Kolkata resulted from the influx of refugees migrating from Pakistan after the partition of India.

Rathor (2003) in her book “Slum Dwellers: Curse on Development” described slums to be  a pervasive phenomenon throughout the developing countries of the world. Slums are inherently interconnected with the social structure of urban life and cannot be isolated from it. Slums have given rise to numerous social, ethical, and demographic issues. The situation has got further aggravated due to uncontrolled migration, unbalanced distribution of income, in adequate community facilities, lack of urban planning. Much like a disease, slums also seem to grow and multiply.

Mitra (2003) has underlined that individuals living in slums have developed strategies to manage the uncertainties and risks associated with employment, income, housing, and health. They have adapted in what seems to be the most practical manner given their circumstances. Instances of improved income mobility, whether within similar occupational categories or across different occupations, indicate that informal networking mechanisms assist individuals in adapting to evolving needs, aspirations, and challenges.

Wiebe (1975) in the book “Social Life in an Indian Slum” has presented a comprehensive portrayal of how .how inhabitants within a Madras slum establish social structures and interact within their diverse surroundings. The primary focus of the author centers on poverty and the challenges prevalent in Indian slums. A developing slum area within the Madras was selected during his survey in 1970’s and he concluded that they live in conditions of extreme poverty. Acknowledging these individuals and recognizing their needs is important for enabling them to function effectively, resourcefully, and in an organized manner.

Agnihotri (1994) in the book “Poverty Amidst Prosperity: Survey of Slums” explores a conceptual framework that examines slums across various strata in both developed and developing nations. The author focuses on differentiating slums based on spatial distribution, location specifics, socio-economic attributes, the repercussions of slum existence, and efforts for improvement of slums in Madhya Pradesh. The field investigation conducted is categorized into regions with high industrialization, those in the process of industrialization, areas already industrialized, and cities with minimal industrial growth.

Kundu (1993) in the book “In the Name of Urban Poor: Access to Basic Amenities” has tried to analyze the housing conditions and different housing initiatives aimed at benefiting the impoverished urban population. The author provides insights into the available shelter options and minimal services accessible to the urban poor. The programs discussed in the book are categorized as follows:

i. Basic services programmes through which only services are provided in deficient slum areas or settlements, without altering the physical structure of the houses.

ii. Shetter-cum-services programmes under which serviced land, security of tenure and certain basic services are made available.

Urbanization and growth of slums

Today more people live in urban areas than in rural areas across the world. 30% of the global population of the world was urban in 1950. However, by 2050, about 66% of the global populace is projected to be urban as per World Urbanization Prospects 2014.  Consistent urbanization and population growth is projected to add 2.5 billion people to the urban population of the planet, with nearly 90% of the increase concentrated in Africa and Asia.  Only three nations-Nigeria, China and India are expected to account for 37% of the projected growth of the global urban population between 2014 and 2050.  While Nigeria is expected to add 212 million urban dwellers, China is likely to add 292 million, and India about 404 million urban dwellers.

Towns and cities are centers for agglomeration investments, innovation, technology, tertiary jobs and economic growth. They represent the hopes of millions of migrants from the rural hinterlands of a nation. The National Sample Surveys of India for 1999–2000 and 2007–2008 records the increase in both intra and interstate migration to urban areas. Like the Census of India shows, taken together, intra and interstate migration rose to 139 million in 2011, from 98 million in 2001. Unemployment, poverty, as well as lack of good educational medical facilities drove rural migrants to urban region. Employment opportunities in the informal sectors, along with wider range with amenities attract village populations to urban areas. There are pull and push factors that operate together to increase rural to urban migration. This ultimately increases the pressure on the existing urban infrastructure.

The poor migrants who are not able to afford urban housing ultimately find themselves in squatter settlements and slums. These slums commonly develop in open areas and vacant plots along railway lines, riverbanks, and canals. Owing to the influx of rural populations into urban areas in search of subsistence, slums across India continue to rise, while the quality of housing declines. With the growth of cities, their slum population also grows.  This largely happens due to the failure in planning cities in a manner to address the needs of all people. Insecurity of tenure and inequities in accessing basic services are also certain other important factors that contribute to the increase of slums.

Slum Redevelopment: A global perspective

There have been multiple interventions globally focused on providing proper housing solutions to all, including slum redevelopment initiatives. This involves rebuilding a slum from scratch. The very first slum redevelopment policies emerged in the United States and the United Kingdom in order to redevelop industrial New York City and London, which were interspersed with squatter settlements.

The Slum Clearance Compensation Act of 1956 in the United Kingdom largely guided the policies to deal with slums spread through the cities of Liverpool, Glasgow, and London. This policy encouraged the local councils to demolish poor-quality housing, initiate mass slum clearance, and ultimately replace these slums with new buildings. This was among the most expensive programs of the time as the resulting social housing was primarily financed by the state. Owing to this program, about 1.5 million dwellings had been demolished by 1979, and more than about 3.70 million people were relocated.  Many scholars criticized the policy back them for relocating public housing to the town outskirts, and replacing low-rise housing with high rise flats. However, as per recent studies, the majority of the relocated families were happy to move from squalid unsanitary housing to a home with better heating, running hot water, and electric lights. While the overall improvement in the quality of life of the slum dwellers was significant, the next wave of policies put greater emphasis on minimizing the social cost of relocation, ultimately leading to the consideration of in-situ redevelopment policies.

When it comes to in-situ redevelopment, temporary accommodations would be provided to the slum dwellers till the construction. The beneficiaries were moved back onto their original land after construction, enabling them to enjoy improved housing with better amenities. This process allows for the continuation of livelihood, as well as helps slum dwellers to maintain their social ties. The success of policies related to in-situ redevelopment of slums, however, depends on three major outcomes:

1. Ensuring decent quality of housing: Creating quality housing at low costs is vital for such schemes, but does pose a major challenge for the developers. Low-quality housing can have major issues like water leakages in walls, leading to inefficient outcomes for the scheme. It can even result in beneficiaries returning to live in slums resulting in abandoned housing.

2. Ensuring timely redevelopment: During the period of redevelopment, slum dwellers commonly live in temporary accommodations. Often these accommodations are far away from their areas of livelihood. Hence, every additional day of delay in the project can cause a loss of income for a daily-wage-earning low-income household.

3. Ensuring identification of beneficiaries: Ensuring the accurate identification of beneficiaries can be a challenge when individuals relocate from one location to another. This issue commonly arises when redevelopment policies require residents of informal housing to provide proof of their length of residence in a specific area. The methods employed to survey and identify these beneficiaries face various obstacles, including opaque beneficiary lists, delays in obtaining survey results due to manual techniques, and the potential for corruption.

A dependable implementation agency is important for enhancing the quality of housing as per the policy and managing the redevelopment deadlines. While the construction of public housing has been carried out with efficiency by local governments to a certain extent in the United Kingdom and the United States, the capacity of local government varies from city to city in developing nations. Therefore, private sector is often looked to as a potential partner for the implementation of redevelopment schemes.

Government initiatives to manage slums over the years

1. National Slum Development Programme (NSDP) was initiated in the year of 1996. NSDP offers both loans and subsidies to states for slum rehabilitation projects based on their urban slum population.

2. The National Slum Development Programme (NSDP), which was initiated in 1996, offers loans and subsidies to states to support slum rehabilitation projects based on the size of their urban slum population.

3. The Valmiki Ambedkar Malina Basti Awas Yozana (VAMBAY), introduced in 2001, specifically focused on providing shelter to the urban poor. It allocated 20% of its total funds to community sanitation facilities under the Nirmal Bharat Abhiyan (NBA) program.

4. The Basic Services to the Urban Poor (BSUP) was a significant component of the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM). Its primary objective was to provide basic services to the urban poor residing in 63 of India's most populous cities.

5.  The Integrated Housing & Slum Development Programme (IHSDP) was introduced by the Government of India by merging the National Slum Development Programme (NSDP) and the Valmiki Ambedkar Malina Basti Awas Yozana (VAMBAY). The main aim of the IHSDP is to offer sufficient shelter and basic infrastructure facilities to the residents of slums in urban areas.

6. The Interest Subsidy Scheme for Housing the Urban Poor (ISHUP) aims to provide an interest subsidy to economically weak sections and low-income groups, enabling them to purchase or construct houses.

7. Rajiv Awas Yojana (RAY) was launched in 2013. This scheme puts emphasis on:

a. Bringing existing slums within the formal system and allowing them to avail of the same level of basic amenities as the rest of the town.

b. Redressing the failures of the formal system that may lie behind the creation of slums.

c. Handling the shortages of urban land and housing that keep shelter out of reach of the urban poor.

8. Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana’s “Housing for All (Urban) initiative was launched in 2015. This scheme seeks to provide central assistance to implementing agencies across the Indian States and UTs for offering houses to the beneficiaries. It incorporates the following:

a. “In-situ” slum rehabilitation with participation of private developers who use land as a resource. Such an approach is focused on leveraging the locked potential of land under slums to offer houses to the eligible slum dwellers and bringing them into the formal urban settlement.

b. Promotion of affordable housing for weaker section through credit linked subsidy

c. Affordable housing in partnership with public and private sectors

d. Subsidy for beneficiary-led individual house construction and enhancement

9.  Slum areas (Improvement and Clearance) Act, in the year 1956: This act intends to provide for the clearance and improvement of slum areas in specific Union Territories, as well as the protection of tenants in such areas from eviction. It allows appropriate authoritiesto declare any location to be a slum in accordance to its definition and investigate the possibilities of improvement.

What are the challenges in Slum Redevelopment?

1. Unmet Demand: The Government of India reports there was a shortage of about 19 million homes in urban India.  56% of this was from Economically Weaker Section (EWS) households who have a monthly income less than INR 25,000.

2. Limited access to financial resources: One of the primary challenges faced by the urban poor is limited access to formal financial resources, which hinders their ability to purchase a new home or improve their quality of life in a housing unit subsidized by the government. Housing Finance Companies, apprehensive about potential risks, often exhibit reluctance in catering to the financial needs of the urban poor.

3. Lack of available urban land: As per the UN-HABITAT, the urban population in India is projected to reach approximately 675 million by 2035. The rapid urbanization has resulted in a high demand for land in Indian cities. However, strict regulations on land development contribute to an artificial shortage of urban land. This situation creates opportunities for corruption in the licensing of land and leads to urban sprawl. Additionally, the lack of transparent records for land transactions increases the time and costs involved for developers. Moreover, many state-owned entities that cannot be easily sold or transferred are situated in prime locations within cities, further limiting the availability of land for housing purposes.

4. Growing construction expenses: With increasing labor and material expenses, private developers may not be able to supply affordable housing to the market on their own.

5. Regulatory constraints: Development projects in cities are subject to a lengthy approval process in regards to varied aspects at both central and state levels, bringing about postponement in tasks.

6. Litigation: The nature of informal settlements leads often involves disputed and complicated land rights, giving rise to litigation and delays. Entities opposed to redeveloped project may even resort to litigation. For instance, PIL was filed against Dharavi Slum Redevelopment Plan, arguing it shall impact Mahim Nature Park, a protected area.

7. Illegal subletting: As per Slum Rehabilitation Agency (SRA), several redeveloped units are illegally subleased. This is counterproductive to the goal of creating slum free cities in the long run.

8. Environmental sustainability: There are a lot of concerns among urban planning about creating housing on already over-constrained municipal systems.  Such policies can put undue burden on the civic amenities of a city like water and electricity that are provided directly to the households, unless adequate investments are made in adding capacity to existing civic infrastructure.

Approach for slum redevelopment

Multiple suggestions for sustainable Slum Redevelopment have been made under report by the National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA). This includes:

1. Administrative Sustainability: India is a vast country. Hence, a one-size-fits-all model might not work at a pan-India level. It is important to adjust slum redevelopment models as per local requirements. There is a need for examining the demand, supply, and financial incentives. Transferable Developmental Rights, Floor Space Index (FSI) and financial incentives must be tailored to the local conditions.

2. Decentralized Systems: Municipalities in India typically have centralized public services. Slums usually lack access to important services owing to a lack of resources to meet development and demand, high investment expenses, as well as low-income groups’ refusal to pay taxes and fees. Decentralized systems tend to have the capacity to alleviate such challenges as they are more cost efficient.

3. Financial Sustainability: Providing free housing to slum households under slum redevelopment schemes or SRS can result in issues of illegal sales of housing and illegal subletting. Stringent measures must be put in place to address these issues. Financial support also must be made available to poor households to pay for the cost of the house.

4. Micro financing: Scaling up micro-finance would be helpful in delivering housing funds for the urban po

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