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Fresh water is one of the fundamental elements for life on earth without any substitute. The accelerated exhaustion and deterioration are putting pressure on water resources. Rivers are the connecting link between natural and human environment. They provide service of driving away water and sediments and other substance in and out of basin. Rivers with their linkages with watershed, basin area, wetlands, small rivulets and drains form an extensive and complex river and freshwater ecosystem. Fortunately, India is a water surplus country but this developing nation is the victim of contaminated water because of inadequate infrastructure to deal with sewage and other types of waste water. Rivers play roles of hotspots for biological diversity and emerging points of various facilities provided by them.  Rivers are lifeline of human society, environment and economy. Services provided by rivers establishes close relationship between humans and riverine ecosystem. Rivers are often regarded as dynamic link of this kind of socio-ecological ecosystem. In recent years, degraded condition of river is answered through various restoration techniques. River restoration is set of activities intended to bring back river to the pre degraded standards.

Escalating anthropogenic demands from the rivers and limited capacity of degraded rivers are creating problematic conditions in society. To meet all of society’s need and demands, planners requires a comprehensive planning and management of water resources. This type of water resources management prioritizes and optimises the use of freshwater resources in a way which tries to recognise the limitations, to minimise the impacts and symphonises between conflicting demands and needs.

River restoration is considered essential for re-establishment and sustenance of functions of river. Sustainability of the rivers for socio-ecological function is impeded and revamping is urgently required to ensure healthy environment habitat. The term ‘river restoration’ is hypernym, which is used to address various problems and activities in river water and ecosystem management. According to Allison (2007), “restoration is a practice in which choosing the best language to describe that practice has been especially problematic.” Many definitions of river restoration exist but ambiguity and overlapping of activities and practice made it complex.

A. Definitions with Ecological Point of View

Restoration implies return of an ecosystem to a close approximation of its condition prior to disturbance” (Shields et al. 2003)

“an acid test for ecology” (Bradshaw 2002)

“should be defined as returning an ecosystem to its condition prior to disturbance (if known and possible), or, as inmost cases, to a state as similar as possible to that prior to disturbance” (Amoros 2001)

“implies full return to a prior structure and function” (Brookes & Shields 1996)

“restoration, by its strictest definition, as a return to the original conditions” (Gore & Shields 1995)

“Restoration means returning an ecosystem to a close approximation of its condition prior to disturbance. Accomplishing restoration means ensuring that the ecosystem structure and functions are recreated or repaired and that natural dynamic ecosystem processes are operating effectively again” (N.R.C. 1992)

“the complete structural and functional return to a pre-disturbance state” (Cairns 1991)

“the act of restoring to a former state […] or to an unimpaired or perfect condition” (Bradshaw 1996)

“the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged, or destroyed” (SER 2004) definition of the Society for Ecological Restoration

B. Definitions based on Sustainability of Structure of Ecosystem

“restoration is a complex endeavour that begins by recognising natural or human induced disturbances that are damaging the structure and functions of the ecosystem or preventing its recovery to a sustainable condition” (F.I.S.R.W.G. 1998)

Minimize human- mediated constraints, thereby allowing natural re expression of productive capacity” (Stanford 1996)

“restore the most probable form [..] and the effective design for the most long – term stability and function” (Rosgen 1994)

C. Comprehensive Definition

Palmer and Bernhardt (2006) gave a comprehensive definition of river restoration as “Repairing waterways that can no longer perform essential ecological and social functions”

D. Practical Definition

Bernhardt (2007) defined it as “river restoration is a term applied to a wide range of specific management activities, from replanting riparian trees or fencing live-stock out of stream corridors to the removal of dams and full-scale redesign of river channels”

Practical definition given Kondolf and Micheli (1995) is “restoration projects must recreate the physical conditions needed to maintain natural communities, including substrate, water depth and velocity, inundation frequency, and temperature”

In 1991 Downs et al. given definition like “a historically influenced exercise in environmental enhancement through morphological modification”

Strategic water resources management river restoration policies, frameworks should be designed with respect to demands of human society and natural ecosystem. The sustainability depends upon human society and natural ecosystem with symphony of developmental plans and activities for conservations and preservation of natural resources. This type of understanding paves the way for informed and strategic decision making with legit priorities of resource management, trade-offs between competing objectives and planning for interventions. River restoration is just a part of comprehensive and strategic water resource management. This can be affected by many others factors. Restoration measures involve techniques and approaches from independent to dependent, unplanned arrangements, regulatory controls to restrict present pressure points to ensure sustainable futuristic development. Restoration ecological system is now a well-established scientific discipline. It inherits a number of concepts and models to explain resulted responses of natural ecosystem. It is a practical science to implement geomorphic, ecological and management understandings and principles to achieve realistic and sustainable ecosystem.

The practice of river restoration could be both active and passive (Roni and Beachie, 2013). Active restoration means direct involvement of humans to modify, alter and develop the riverine ecosystem by the practices of plantation, removal or modification of barriers affecting the river channel, reintroduction of native species (both aquatic flora and fauna). While passive restoration controls the actions of human system like people, government, business and societies with agenda of reducing anthropogenic impact on natural river ecosystem. These practices are regulations imposed upon societies, factories to restrict certain practices, imparting education to create awareness among people or market-based incentives to reduce human imprints. The following diagram attempts to describe and establish an ideal relationship between active and passive river restoration is shown in below diagram:

River restoration is just a part of comprehensive and strategic water resource management. This can be affected by many otherfactors. Restoration ofecological system is now a well-established scientific discipline. It inherits a number of concepts and models to explain resulted responses of natural ecosystem. It is a practical science to implement geomorphic, ecological and management understandings and principles to achieve realistic and sustainable ecosystem.

Figure 1.1. the relationship among river ecosystem, restoration, and anthropogenic system

History and evolution of River Restoration

Rivers have beenan integral part of human civilization for economical, aesthetical and navigational purposes rivers have been altered for human interest during 18th and 19th century. Aggressiveidea of dam building philosophy was prevalent in field of river management. Dams have been regarded as index of regional development power, innovations and technical progress during these centuries, but in the last 30 years, the science of river management has shifted towards ecological restorations although the history of river restoration dates back to ancient time.The modern development of this concept started in USA when Clean Water Act was launched to protect and improve fresh water system. In Europe during 1980’s and 90's major restoration projects were introduced for the Rhine river bloodline of Europe the Mercy and the Danube rivers. Developed countries havealready implemented and examine the process of river resources on their natural water resources, but developing countries are still lagging behind in this sector.

At international level

Many problems arose during 1970’s like untreated sewage, industrial and toxic discharges, destruction of wetlands and contaminated run off (US, EPA) because of long history of industrial progression with environmental neglect. Other concerns like number of high-profile incidents of water pollution,high level of bacterial growth in the Hudson river that was 170 times the safe limit, recorded number of fish death incidents were also forced US government to pass the Federal Water Pollution Control Act known as the Clean Water Act 1972.

This act clarified the objective of restoration is to restore and maintain the chemical physical and biological integrity of river waters. In the initial phase the objective of restoration was water quality improvement but more recently this has been shifted towards the maintenance protection of healthy aquatic ecosystem. With concern of water quality restoration, the population of salmon increased in Columbia river these efforts have been taken to restore fisheries resources in some cases only for one species like salmon in Columbia river. Other projects are Florida everglades, the Missouri, Mississippi, Sacramento river, Louisiana delta Chesapeake Bay and Great lakes.

In Australia a number of initiatives have been taken to restore and protect Murray and Darling rivers. These rivers witnessed over allocation and extraction of water for irrigation. High level of salinity and algal bloom, deteriorate quality of water lead to the government to return the $3.1 billion purchase of water entitlement in the rivers for environmental protection. In Australia restoration concept was not restricted to the rivers but this also extended to protect and restore Aqua ecosystem of Great Barrier Reef. The Reef water quality protection plan was passed by Queensland government in 2013.

Europe has a long history of anthropogenic interventions of river management to reduce pollution, But in the form of modern-day work of RR started from 1980’s. Formation of river (sinuosity of river) bank stability was the main focus of early restoration projects whereas in later phases ecological restoration with water quality improvement gained the place in this progression a number of legislations and directives. Urban wastewater treatment (UWWT) directive adopted in 1991 to solve the problems of domestic industrial effluents merging into water bodies. Subsequently habitat directive in 1992, Flood directive in 2000, Bird directive in 2009 were launched by European Union. Among these habitats directive and Bird directive were attached together to establish a network of protected areas across the Europe. This network of protected area is called as Natura 2000 network. The most revolutionizing step toward river restoration was EU water framework directive (WFD) which was directed EU state to ensure (except some defined exceptions) all water bodies must attain “Good Ecological Status” by 2027 the good ecological status would be assessed in relation to the quality of its biological community hydrological and chemical characteristics. River basin management plan was also the part of this directive to prevent future and deterioration of water bodies. Rhine river Restoration Danube river Restoration (1940-94) Thames river restoration (1990 -06) river Mersey are major example of river restoration in Europe. Under WFD 83 out of 398 riverine water bodies had attained good ecological status by 2014. Till 2014 most of the remaining 37 riverine water bodies used to fall into Moderate Ecological Status while 16 has Bad Ecological Status. Developing countries are perceiving for Good ecological restoration of their water bodies.

Han river project (1982-86) was the first river restoration project of South Korea which was initiated by Seoul metropolitan government to develop its riparian zone as riparian City park and for recreational boating. Further this approach was adopted by many other cities. Then in 2011 for major river restoration project was started to modify approximately 700 km. of river channel for water security, flood control, sediment free dams etc. Beautification of riparian zone and ecological maintenance of rivers are two major debatable purposes of river restoration in South Korea. In South Korea rivers are damaged because of blind industrialization and urbanization which turned rivers into barricaded drains to dispose industrial waste. River restoration started in South Korea with the perception of river management. In South Korea this concept evolved through five distinct phases -

1. Management of rivers (undisturbed rivers)

2. Management of rivers to prevent floods or droughts

3. Exploitative phase with significant development in flood plains, riparian areas (sometimes river channels were used which is resulted into occupied channel/river)

4. Restoration of rivers with intention of improved amenity value

5. Ecological Restoration of rivers

China government took steps to riverine its water bodies which was deteriorated in recent years the phase of 2000-05 was nascent phase of riverine restoration in China from 2005 this concept was evolved rapidly a number of urban revers projects are completed in (40 cities) cities. Hei, Shiyang and Tarim rivers located in arid North reasons of country are benefited with these projects. Zran river of Beijing is also underway of restoration government of China has also postulated some of guidelines and directives/ standard related to this concept.

At national level

India is a country with long history of river management for ecological value, flood control and irrigation development. The description of river water restoration is found in our Ancient scriptures. In Brahmandpurana, it is cautioned against misusing the Ganga river. In an edict of  Sanskrit, thirteen types of human actions are prohibited such as : defection; ablutions; discharge of wastewater, throwing of used floral, offerings; rubbing of filth; body shampooing; frolicking, acceptance of donations, obscenity, offering of inappropriate praises or even hymns in an incorrect ways, discharging of garments, bathing and in particular, swimming across.  

गंगां पुण्यजलां प्राप्य त्रयोदश विवर्जयेत्। शौचमाचमनं सेकं निर्माल्यं मलघर्षणम्। गाव्रसंवाहनं क्रीड़ां प्रतिग्रहमधोरतिम्। अन्यतीर्थरतिचैवः अन्यतीर्थ प्रशंसनम्। वस्त्रत्यागमधाघातं सन्तारंच विशेषतः।।

                       ब्रहृमाण्डपुराण

In modern India, the river management was initiated with river valley projects like D.V.C (Damodar valley corporation) and CAD (Command area development). Here in India, main focus was flood control, drought resistant and irrigation planning. But after the survey of project of river ganga in 1979-80, water quality of rivers became major concern for planners. GAP (Ganga Action Plan) was initiated with the passage of time all the tributaries of ganga included Yamuna is also covered in this project. Yamuna action plan is introduced in by both central and state government. Namami gange is the gigantic project of government of India with 230 NGO’s to restore holiest river of country- Ganga River. Several other attempts have been also taken by government department and N.G.O.’s to restore water quality of rivers and lakes in India. The Tarun Bharat Sangh is one of the private organizations, led by waterman of India Rajendar Singh, has rejuvenated eleven streams in Rajasthan and Maharashtra. These rivers are Sairni river, Tevar river, Jahajwali river, Bhagani river, Tildeh river, Agrani river, Sarsa river, Arvari river, Sabi river, Ruparel river and Maheshwara river. Local government bodies like Nagpur corporation has attempted to restore Nagpur river in 2013. Chennai river restoration trust under government of Tamil Nadu has initiated eco-restoration of Adyar creek, Adyar creek estuary and Cooum river. (The Hindu, Feb. 2014). Ahmedabad municipal corporation has executed the Sabarmati project in 1997 with the aim of beautification of river front. Devika river from Udhampur district in Jammu and Kashmir is declared first river rejuvenation project of north India about to be complete. (PIB, August 6, 2023)

Comparative chart of river action plans in India

Sl. No.	Rivers	Restoration process	Status	Critical appraisal
1.	Ganga	Interception and diversion, sewage treatment plans River front development, toilets, plantation, public awareness and participation.	Slightly improved BOD. DO level and Coliforms counts but not satisfactory	Energy crisis Land acquisition Delay in completion of plan. Rural sector, watershed development as well as groundwater are ignored. issue of ensuring e-flows was not attended.  No attention was paid to run-off from agricultural fields
2.	Yamuna	Interception and diversion, sewage treatment plans River front development, toilets, plantation, public awareness and participation.	Under Phase-I and II of YAP, 40 STPs with a total capacity of 902.25 million l/day, have been completed in 21 towns of Uttar Pradesh, Haryana and Delhi	Energy crisis Land acquisition Delay in completion of plan.
3.	Gomati	Interception and diversion, sewage treatment plans River front development, toilets, plantation, public awareness and participation.	In phase-I 26 out of 30 schemes have been completed. In phase-II 10 out of 30 schemes have been started.	Land acquisition is major problem. Financial withdrawal
4.	Damodar	interception and diversion, sewage treatment plans and river front development, development of Improved crematoria		pollution by effluents from coal mines and coal-based industries
5.	Mahananda	interception and diversion, sewage treatment plans and river front development	one has been completed
6.	Devika river	Construction of sewage network and treatment plants, cremation ghats, bathing ghats, hydro & solar power plants, conservation of catchment area	Government declared it near to completion	Concrete construction near banks of river, much anthropogenic interventions
7.	Sabarmati riverfront	Land reclamation, construction of defined waterways, sewage interceptors and treatment plants, rehabilitation of slum dwellers	Completed	Total concretization of river banks, less natural environment
8.	Vaigai river	Interception and diversion of sewage, construction of sewage treatment plant	Funded by JNNURM and Chennai metro water supply and sewage board	Social initiatives art project, applied Felicia Young’s methodology
9.	Kuttamperoor river	Encroachment removal, construction of bunds road, bathing ghats and bunds with coir bhoovasthra, channel deepening	Funded by NABARD (Employment Guarantee Scheme) &Harita Keralam mission	Public participation and government initiatives
10.	Hindon river	Construction of sewage network and treatment plants, regulate industrial effluent discharge and respective treatment capacity	Manged by UPPCB	Survey and identification pollution sources
11.	Mithi river	Tree plantation in catchment region, construction of ETP/STP’s and social participation, reduction of solid waste disposal	Project under MPCB	Social awareness

1. Action Plan for Restoration of Polluted Stretch of River Hindon from District Saharanpur to District Ghaziabad (2019), UPPCB report, Uttar Pradesh available at http://www.uppcb.com/pdf/RIVER-HINDON.pdf accessed on 13/10/2023

2. Allison, Stuart. (2007). You Can’t Not Choose: Embracing the Role of Choice in Ecological Restoration. Restoration Ecology. 15. 601 - 605. 10.1111/j.1526-100X.2007.00271. x.

3. Amoros C (2001) The concept of habitat diversity between and within ecosystems applied to river side-arm restoration. Environmental Management 28(6):805-817

4. Baffert C., 2021. The Water Framework Directive: Europe’s Environmental Success Story? available at https://revolve.media/interviews/the-water-framework-directive-europes-environmental-success-story accessed on 15/11/2023

5. Bradshaw A (1996) Underlying principles of restoration. Canadian Journal of Fisheries andAquatic Sciences 53:3–9

6. Bradshaw A (2002) Introduction and philosophy. Chapter 1 In: Handbook of EcologicalRestoration. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, USA. 618 p.

7. Shields FD, Copeland RR, Klingeman PC, Doyle MW, Simon A (2003) Design for streamrestoration. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 129:575-584

8. Brookes A, Shields FD (1996) River Channel Restoration: Guiding Principles for Sustainable Project. John Wiley and Sons, Chichester, UK. p. ISBN 978-0-471-96139-0

9. Cairns J (1991) The status of the theoretical and applied science of restoration ecology. TheEnvironmental Professional 11:152-159

10. Downs PW, Gregory KJ, Brookes A (1991) How integrated is river basin development?Environmental Management 15(3):299-309

11. F.I.S.R.W.G. (1998) Stream corridor restoration. Principles, processes, and practices in: Federal Stream Corridor Restoration Handbook. FISRWG, Washington DC, USA. 637 p.

12. Ganga action plan (1985) NMCG, Department of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation GOI, available at  https://nmcg.nic.in/gangaactionplan1.aspx accessed on 09/10/2023

13. Gore JA, Shields FD (1995) Can Large Rivers be Restored. Bioscience 45(3):142-152

14. Kondolf GM, Micheli ER (1995) Evaluating stream restoration projects. EnvironmentalManagement 19(1):1-15

15. N.R.C. (1992) Restoration of Aquatic Ecosystems: Science, Technology, and Public Policy.Pages 576

16. Palmer M, Bernhardt ES (2006) Hydroecology and river restoration: Ripe for research andsynthesis. Water Resources Research 42(3):1-4

17. Report on Action Plan for Mithi River(2019), MPCB report, Maharashtraavailable at https://mpcb.gov.in/sites/default/files/river-polluted/action-plan-priority/priority_I_MITHI_28052019.pdfaccessed on 13/10/2023

18. Reviving Kuttamperoor river: People participatory mission bring new life to the waterway (2023), official web portal,Govt. of Kerala

available at https://kerala.gov.in/articledetail/NTMxMTAzODE3LjY0/0?lan=en accessed on 13/10/2023

19. Roni, P. & Beechie, T., 2013. Stream and watershed restoration – A guide to restoring riverine processes and habitats. John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

20. Rosgen DL (1994) A classification of natural rivers. Catena 22:169-199

21. Stanford JA, Ward JV, Liss WJ, Frissell CA, Williams RN, Lichatowich JA, Coutant CC (1996) A general protocol for restoration of regulated rivers. Regulated Rivers: Research &Management 12(4-5):391-413

22. Ser (2004) The SER International Primer on Ecological Restoration. www.ser.org & Tucson: Society for Ecological Restoration International available athttps://cdn.ymaws.com/www.ser.org/resource/resmgr/custompages/publications/ser_publications/ser_primer.pdf accessed on 11/12/2023

23. United States Environmental Protection Agency, The U.S. EPA's 25th Anniversary Report:1970-1995 available at https://www.epa.gov/archive/epa/sites/production/files/documents/report.pdfon  accessed on 13/10/2023

24. Earth celebrations& DHAN foundation(2015) Vaigai River Restoration Projectavailable at https://earthcelebrations.com/vaigai-river-restoration-pageant-project/accessed on 13/10/2023

25. National River Conservation Plan & National Lake Conservation (2007),website of Ministry of Environment and Climate Change, Govt. of Tamil Nadu available at https://www.environment.tn.gov.in/nrcp-nlcpaccessedon 13/10/2023

26. North India's first River Rejuvenation Project Devika is nearing completion, it was launched by PM Modi himself: Dr. Jitendra Singh (Aug. 2023), PIB news, New Delhiavailable at https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1946187 accessed on 13/10/2023