Urbanization and Solid Waste
Generation
Environmental sociologists and economists
together with urban planners have argued that SWG and urbanization are
inter-related. It is an undisputed factor that all mega cities in the developed
and developing world (including India) are in a fast and complex process to
urbanize (caused by industrialization, liberalized markets, and privatization).
In India, speedy urbanization was launched
after the second Five Year Plan. But it got a fillip in the 70s and 80s when
industrialization process had stabilized. Sociologists have considered
industrialization as instigating much urban growth and expansion, not only in
India (Srinivas 1984) but in the developed world like the USA, where the study
of urban sociology took its birth with the establishment of The Chicago School
in the 1920s, with urban ecologists and sociologists like Robert E Park
theorizing the process with ‘Concentric Ring Theory’; and Burgess calling Urbanism
as a way of life.
The post 1990s witnessed greater speed and
quantity of urban growth and expansion with the introduction of Structural
Adjustment Policies (SAP), and LPG (Liberalization, Privatization and
Globalization). With Bengaluru labelled as the Silicon Valley, several other
mega cities like Hyderabad, Mumbai, Chennai, Kochi became IT and BT hubs.
Gurgaon, Kolkata, Ahmedabad and a few others came to have large-scale
commercial centres, markets, and Special Economic Zones (SEZs).
Fall in Agricultural
Productivity
In the above context of attempting to unearth
the reasons behind increased density of population in cities and towns, the
fall in agricultural productivity and its capacity to sustain the livelihoods
of the poor and marginal landowning families. The following factors are
considered to be the cause of such a downfall of agriculture, whose
contribution to the GDP is rated to be around 15 per cent to 25 per cent (GoI,
2015). They are:
i.
Irregular rainfall
ii.
Crop loss due to poor quality of seeds, manure, etc.
iii.
Environmental extremities (excessive rain or failure of rainfall at the right
sgtage)
iv.
Fluctuation in the prices of agricultural commodities
v.
Caste-based oppression driving the Dalits and other oppressed and vulnerable
communities out of villages towards, seeking alternative work opportunities
vi.
Poverty and loss of livelihoods
All these factors are leading to large scale
migration from rural to urban areas.
The 8 Millennium Development Goals that ended
in the year 2015 included eradication of urban poverty and improvement of urban
areas as one of the key goals. The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) that
began in the year 2015 and scheduled to be ended in 2030, have also placed a
lot of emphasis upon environmental hazards, the impact of improper SWM on the health of urban population and reduction
in the generation of SW.
II Situational Analysis
(1) Causes for Increased SWG
in Urban Areas
According to urban anthropologists,
environmental experts, city planners and civic administrators, the two chief
causes of multiplying quantities of SWG are as follows:
a. Urban Lifestyle
Cosmopolitan or metropolitan cities have such
an economic and cultural lifestyle that has a lot of scope for SWG. SW is
classified into electronic or E-Waste, household SW, SW generated in public
institutions – hospitals, markets, transport systems, manufacturing units (like
garments), processing firms (food, etc.,), supply of meat, vegetables, fruits, etc.
Road side eateries, Dabhas, coffee shops, restaurants, snack shops like Pani
Puri, etc., are another major source of SWG. Thirdly, the supply chains for
milk, readymade food, and other consumerables, otherproducts needed for daily
use also generate a lot of SW.
We have to note that the last-mentioned items
are produced/prepared/manufactured in the low-class and slum areas of the
cities, by poor households/enterprises. Congestion in terms of space, lack of
ventilation, lack of hygiene, improper SW disposal mechanisms – all add to
making the SW generated highly decomposed and harmful to health. The gases
produced from such undisposed or improperly disposed SW material is very
dangerous to the health of the inmates of those houses involved in such
economic activities, as well as to the neighbourhood. The situation is
converted as more dangerous, messy, and unhygienic when liquid waste (such as
sewerage water from gutters, rain water, waste water released from small scale
industries/factories, commercial establishments like small hotels, etc.) is
also let to get into the SW. One can imagine the total impact on human health.
b. High Density of Population
Needless to emphasize, today, 8 out of 10
landless (even marginal and small landowning) agricultural and casual labourers,
hitherto working for wages under the upper and dominant castes in villages, are
moving out of their native rural homes towards towns and cities seeking better
and sustainable employment opportunities. It is found through assessment
studies and government surveys that more than the permanently residing
population, the ‘floating’ population is larger in the mega or metropolitan
cities. Floating population consists of daily commuters to work in the city in
various capacities such as casual labourers, self employed personnel like cab
drivers, service professional, factory, and garment workers and so on.
Transportation, food and drink and their other needs place a heavy toll on
generation of SW.
Secondly, or besides the floating population,
we find a large influx of immigrant population flowing into the big cities and
metropolitan areas, because of numerous and better paying employment
opportunities in them.
(2) Greater the Urbanization,
higher is the burden of ill-health
Thus, SWM is intricately connected to
urbanization process. One will be shocked to learn that the proportion of
world’s population in 1950s, living in the urban areas was about 30 per cent.
By 2050 it is expected to rise to include about 60 per cent of world’s
population to be living in the urban areas. India (in all its cities and urban
conglomerations) is urbanizing at a faster rate like mega cities of the world
like Tokyo, New York etc. Going by the rate at which cities are growing and
urbanization taking place, there is no doubt that urban centres are acting as
the “engines for economic growth and associated waste generation”. But the
matter causing concern is that while cities are rapidly growing, with
simultaneous SEG, health of their people is undoubtedly at stake. It is
entirely due to or caused by poor waste management. Countries like Indian and
China are rapidly urbanizing and developing economies, but also characterized
by rising volumes of SW generated but the Waste management practices are rather
weak.
The single-most factor causing increased SWG in
such quantities or proportions that the civic administration finds it hard to
efficiently clear or manage it. Therefore, human socio-economic activities and
their products are considered as the root cause of the health risks and
environmental extremities. Last few decades/years have witnessed how a number
of air borne and water borne infectious diseases have posed environmental and
health challenges. Some of the diseases are something like ‘having a comeback’.
Influenza, Malaria, Tuberculosis, and a number of types of fever – Chikungunya,
Dengue, Swine – dysentery, etc. The worst form of impact is on the lungs –
bronchial infections, disorders, leading to severe pneumonia, asthma, and other
respiratory complications.
Current economic activities of people in
cosmopolitan cities (as discussed above), the products and their usage are
recognized by environmentalists and sociologists as causing or leading to
severe environmental and climate change, which have in return, drastic impact
on human health.
(3) Solid Waste Generation&
Inequality in Impact on Health
It is clear from the above discussion that cities
and growing urban population means solid waste generation today. it impacts
environment and health of people. Sociologically, it is very important here to
note that the impact is not uniform on people. In a socio-culturally stratified
and unequal, unjust society that is India, caste influences the intensity or
severity of the impact on SWG and its resultant environmental results. In other
words, due to poverty and marginalization, oppression, and lack of access to
and control over natural and material resources, the poor in urban areas suffer
gravely as a result of improper management of solid (and liquid) waste. Among
the poor in the slums and other low-lying areas of the cities and towns, we
find a large majority of people from SC (Dalit), Muslim, ST, Lower OBC
categories, whose poverty and backwardness is the result of a long history of
deprivation and exploitation based on caste and religion. To this women and
children, disabled, LGBTQ+, sick, old, displaced and migrants have to be added
because they are also highly vulnerable.
(4) Solid Waste Management
It is imperative that increased SWG leads to a
situation where the civic administration is under much pressure to manage the
collection and proper disposal of SW. India has decentralized urban planning
and governance system in 1994, as per theConstitution’s 74th
Amendment Act. Administration power, financial grants and entire governance
system have been devolved to the elected bodies, viz., Nagara Palikas and City
Municipalities in cities and towns. The onus is upon these ULBs (Urban Elected
Bodies) to survey and estimate the quantum and extent of SWG; two, to design
suitable collection, management and disposal mechanisms in all zones and wards
of the cities.
This huge task is turning out to be an
exchequer on the budgetary allocation for local governments.
(5) Critical Issues in SW Accumulation
and Collection
Health hazards caused to the public, animals,
aqua and plants and trees in and surrounding the urban areas are linked to the
presence and multiplication of a large number of Open Dumpsites (ODs). One can
see garbage in solid form thrown on corners of roads, below lamp polls, parks,
public buildings like markets, hospitals, commercial establishments etc. They
are thrown around residential settlements, leading extremely dangerous health
outcomes. Urban growth, despite the efforts of Urban Development Authorities
(like BBMP in Bengaluru, MUDA in Mysuru) to contain the proper disposal,
collection, and management of SW, has not been efficient. The reason is the
fast growing and expansion of urban metropolis. Cities are already under duress
to provide optimum fresh air, clean potable drinking water, ventilation and
hygiene, shelter etc., all culminating in failure to provide a clean
environment to large mass of urban population. As noted above, the upper
classes/elites somehow manage to get the best of all the above services and
live in airconditioned residential apartments, lay outs and work in clean
environments. It is the poor, very poor and lower middle-class people who
suffer more. Beginning with their dilapidated housing structures in slums and
congested accommodations. As urban centres/big cities are valued for the
educational, employment and other services they provide/offer, they are
considered as centres of opportunity to prosper. So, large numbers of people
from outside – of all classes, educational qualifications, skills, and aspirants land up in cities adding to
the demand for basic services. This has made urban health a costly and
challenging one.
