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We have discussed the specific feature of bricks like the typology, structure of the bricks used by the Harappan peoples at their time. The building material for the villages and cities of the IVC (Indus Valley Civilization) was predominantly mud brick. Just in the Mature stage, backed blocks were utilized in a huge amount, particularly for dividers and floors presented to water. This study gives a detailed description of the brick's shape, structure, and types.

Possehl, G. L. (1979). Ancient cities of the Indus. Oxford. Possehl, G. L. (1990). Revolution in the Urban Revolution: The Emergence of Indus Urbanization. Annual Review of Anthropology 19(1), 261–282. Possehl, G. L. (1999). Indus Age: The Beginnings. Univ. Of Pennsylvania Press.

Secondary sources.

The major city Harappa is the main icon of the Indus Valley Civilization.  It has existed for almost 2000 years from 3200 to 1300BC. Its traditions are deeply rooted in 4000 years of trading activities and technological invasions. Indus valley civilization is one of the first great civilizations that existed in the region laid up in brick-built cities and under political authorities.

Indus Valley Civilization covered many areas of Pakistan, western India, and Northeastern Afghanistan. From west to east it extends from Baluchistan Pakistan to Uttar Pradesh and from North to South it extends from northeastern Afghanistan to Maharashtra. The region of the Indus valley civilization was enriched with agricultural lands surrounded by highlands, deserts, and oceans that were quite similar to the civilization that rose during the same time in Egypt and Peru. A new Indus site has been discovered in Frontier Province in northwestern Pakistan. The smaller colonies can be found in Turkmenistan and Maharashtra and were isolated. Few colonies are found in Afghanistan. Punjab, Sindh, Rajasthan, Haryana, and Gujarat have the greatest number of colonies. The coastal settlements in Gujrat lay in the region from SutkaganDor in Western Baluchistan to Lothal. Indus Valley Sites have been found at Shortughai in northern Afghanistan, in the GomalRiver in northwestern Pakistan, at Manda, Jammu on the Beas River India, and Alamgirpur on the Hindon river near Delhi. Most of the Indus Valley Civilizations have been found at rivers. Few Indus Valley Sites have been found near the sea coast like Balakot. Kenoyer and Possehl put on several chronological theories about the Indus valley civilization like Dholavira Indus valley chronology which was an Indus Valley Site on the island. Because of this two differentiation between different periods like early Neolithic to pre Harappan phases. The early Neolithic period comprises the Killior KilleGhul Mohammad phase (7000-5000BC) and Burj Basket Market phases (5000-4300) and pre Harappan phase comprises of Togau phase(4300-3800BC) and HakraKechi phase)3800-3200BC). Although the proper IVC phases are represented in Early (3200-2600BC), Mature (2600-1900BC), and Late (1900-1300BC), and a post-Harappan phase (from 1300BC). The constituent phases in the IVC conflicted phase boundaries, multiple nomenclatures for occurring phases, and phase overlap. The highly simplified phase separation is necessary to sort out developments within IVC in a common period (Fuller, 2006; Gangal et al., 2010; Layman and Khan, 2012).

1. EarlyPhase (IVC): C.3300-2600 BCE2. Mature Phase (IVC): C2600-1900 BCE and 

3. Late Phase (IVC): C1900-1300 BCE

 Chronology of Harrapan Phase

Dates	Phase	Name of Site’s	Era
7000–5500 BCE	Pre-Harappan	Mehrgarh I (aceramic Neolithic)	Early Food Producing Era
5500–3300 BCE	Pre-Harappan	Mehrgarh II-VI (ceramic Neolithic)	Regionalization Era c.4000-2500/2300 BCE (Shaffer)[44] c.5000-3200 BCE (Coningham & Young)[45]
3300–2800 BCE	Early Harappan	Harappan 1 (Ravi Phase; Hakra Ware)	Regionalization Era c.4000-2500/2300 BCE (Shaffer)[44] c.5000-3200 BCE (Conningham& Young)[45]
2800–2600 BCE	Early Harappan	Harappan 2 (Kot Diji Phase, Nausharo I, Mehrgarh VII)	Regionalization Era c.4000-2500/2300 BCE (Shaffer)[44] c.5000-3200 BCE (Conningham& Young)
2600–2450 BCE	Mature Harappan (Indus Valley Civilization)	Harappan 3A (Nausharo II)	Integration Era
2450–2200 BCE	Mature Harappan (Indus Valley Civilization)	Harappan 3B	Integration Era
2200–1900 BCE	Mature Harappan (Indus Valley Civilization)	Harappan 3C	Integration Era
1900–1700 BCE	Late Harappan (Cemetery H); Ochre Colored Pottery	Harappan 4	Localization Era
1700–1300 BCE	Late Harappan (Cemetery H); Ochre Colored Pottery	Harappan 5	Localization Era
1300–300 BCE	Post-Harappan	Painted Grey Ware Northern Black Polished Ware (Iron Age) Iron Age India	Vedic period Second urbanization

Marshall was the first one to attributed a stolen brick (1850) from the ruins of Harappa to the Indus Valley Civilizations that was earlier predicted to be a brick from a Buddhist Site. The brick architecture of the Indus valley civilization times back to 7000 BC in the valleys of Baluchistan (Possehl,1990;  Jarrige et al, 1995; Kenoyer,1998). The mud bricks were used for building material for villages and cities. In the mature Harappan phase baked bricks were used mostly and only for walls and floors for high stability and strengthening again water. This phase of baked bricks went together with the urban phase of the Indus valley civilization. The urban phase of IVC is also termed as the time when all the important technologies, shell ornaments, weights, and seals were predominantly used. All these marvels of IVC disappeared after deurbanization after 1900 BC. When IVC was at its peak there was a pure relationship between key inventions and technologies, building materials, and cities. There was a social principle between social and political organizations, craftsmanship, and lifestyle. Through the study of technological, materialistic pieces of evidence information can be extracted about the social, political, or organizational factors that contributed to the decline of the Indus Valley Civilization. By individual estimations, chronological assumptions can be made over typological brick uses and the dynamics of urban cities of IVC. There has been an urban and rural relationship that is a key point in finding out possibilities and reasons for the decline of IVC.

                                            Summary of local chronologies used in this study

Sl.No.	Chronology	Period (BC)	31	Accharwala	2600–1900
1	Mehrgarh I	7000–5500	32	Mature Harappan	2600–1900
2	Kili Ghul Moh	7000–5000	33	Uttarpradesh	2600–1900
3	Northern Neolithic	3200-1900	34	Ganeshwar	2600–1800
4	Mehrgarh II	5500–4800	35	Quetta	2500–1900
5	Burj Basket-Marked	5000–4300	36	Sorath Harappan	2500–1900
6	Mehrgarh III	4800–3500	37	Sorath	2500–1600
7	Togau	4300–3800	38	BMAC	2300–1700
8	Sheri Khan Tarakai	4300–3000	39	Sorathor	2200–1800
9	Anarta	3500–2600	40	Pre-Prabhas	2200–1800
10	Hakra Wares	3800–3200	41	Bara	1900–1300
11	Kechi Beg	3800–3200	42	Jhukar	1900–1700
12	Pre-Harappan	3800–3200	43	Late Sorath	1900–1600
13	Jodhpura	2600–1800	44	Cemetery H	1900–1500
14	Mehrgarh V	3250–3000	45	Rajaput	1900–1300
15	Nal	3200–2800	46	Late Harappan	1900–1300
16	Anjira	4300–3200	47	Post-urban	1900–1300
17	Sothi-Siswal	3200–2600	48	Prabhas	1800–1500
18	Amri-Nal	3200–2600	49	Rangpur IIB	1800–1500
19	Ravi	3200–2600	50	Rangpur IIC	1800–1500
20	Damb Sadaat	3200–2600	51	Pirak II	1800–1000
21	Early Harappan	3200–2600	52	Malwa	1700–300
22	Kulli (Early)	3200–2600	53	Swat Proto-Historic	1650–1300
23	Kot Diji	3200–2600	54	Lustrous Red Ware	1600–1300
24	Mehrgarh VI	3000–2800	55	Complex B	1300–700
25	Shahi Tump	3500–3000	56	Jhangar	1200–1000
26	Ahar-Banas	3000–1500	57	Iron Age	1200–1000
27	Mehrgarh VIIC	2800–2600	58	Painted Gray Ware	1100–500
28	Dasht	2800–2200	59	Pirak III	1000–700
29	Kot Diji (Late)	2600–1900	60	Zangian	1000–200
30	Kulli	2600–1900

Based on Possehl (2002) and Gangal et al. (2010), with changes from Franke-Vogt (2008); Ratnagar (2000); Fuller (2006); Possehl (1999); Kenoyer (2006);Law (2007); Biagi (2011); Shinde et al. (2006); Meadow et al. (1997); Dhavalikar (1984); Possehl (1990); Mortazavi (2011); and Shaffer (1981).

The Indus Valley cultural tradition dates back to 7000 BC in the foothills and valleys of Baluchistan. Early food production was found to be 6500 BC at the site of Mehargarh (Jarrige et al., 1995). There was a planned layout for villages and houses were made from mud bricks. In the Burj period, pottery, as well as wide range of tools, domestication evidences and first artifacts, were found (Moulheatetal., 2002; Fuller, 2011). Earlier the occupation concentrated area was only Baluchistan, the Makran coast, and the western borderlands of the Indus but after 5000BC onwards it extended to the north- and westward into Khyber Phaktunwa, Gujarat, and the Punjab plains (Gangal et al., 2010; Lemmen and Khan, 2012). Ornamental pottery and gold production and consumption emerged, and manufacturing of compartmented seals, glazed steatite, and beads started.

In the pre-Harappan economy, trade was much important as evidence of the use of weights has been found. before 3500 BC Mehrgarh, Amri, and Kotdiji were the first pre-Harappan cities built from mud (or sun-dried) brick. In comparison to cities, many Villages expanded the cultural domain along the Ghaggar Hakra river and the Makran coast as after 3200 BC site numbers got doubled (Law, 2007).Baked bricks appeared first at Kalibangan, Kotdiji, and Banawali. the mature IVC at its peak extended across the alluvial plains of Punjab and Sindh, Baluchistan, the Gujarat coast, and the surrounding valleys in Khyber Pukhtunkhwa (K. P.). The sites of Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro have been recognized as the largest cities with approximately 40,000 residents each (Mcintosh, 2007); the total population is estimated at a few million (Lemmen and Khan, 2012). Its huge and long-range trade network connected by sea to the Sumerian domain and the Arabian Peninsula and it was connected by land to the Bampur valley and across central Asia (Rao, 1965; Boivin and Fuller, 2009; Law, 2011).  After 1900 BC there were a lot of changes in the IVC as trade networks collapsed, use of weights and shell ornaments and seals were abandoned. Manufacturing of baked bricks was also stopped and large cities were abandoned. All settlements moved eastwards into the Ganges valley (Possehl, 2002; Kenoyer, 1998; Datta, 2001). The longest-lasting sites were in Gujarat, but only a few scattered sites remain of the IVC were by 1300 BC (Rao, 1963; Law, 2007; Mcintosh, 2007). Mystery and challenge are indulged in unsolved reasons and various perceptions of a decline in IVC scholarship as most popular theories include environmental change (e.g., Raikes, 1964; Meher-Homji, 1973; Staubwasser, 2003; MacDonald, 2011), river relocations (e.g., Wilhelmy,1967; Giosan et al., 2012), or social causes (e.g., Wheeler, 1968; Kenoyer, 2005).

 In Harappan times, the bricklayer used to put the mud in a special structure made of wood and put it in the sun. We see a difference between the early and the mature Harappan bricks as the initial measurement is 3:2:1 and in the adult, it is found in the size of 4:2:1.Along with this, we get to know the form of other big size bricks by looking at the bricks on the road

Conflicting evidence, explaining uncertainties, a temporal mismatch with the decline period, or having been reinterpreted to serve a particular political and historical view were the reasons these all theories suffered alot (Possehl, 2002; Guha, 2005). The breakdown of trade and religion and multiple factors contributed to the decline (Kenoyer, 2005).

Brick Typology

    

1.     Sun-dried Brick found from Mohanjadaro and the size is 7cm x 14cm.

2.     Cut bricks: Chahnu daro: Pakistan C:2500-1900 BCE.

3.     The average size of the brick is 7x14x28 cm for the house and 10x20x40cm for the city walls. The ratio of the thickness, width and length is 1:2:4 in early phase of the harappan phase this ratio is found at a few sites.

From 7000BC, in pre-Harappan time in Mehargarh mud bricks were firstly used and IVC was the first where baked brick technology was introduced. For Harappan Bronze Age technologies baked brickwork was a hallmark.Harappa, MohenjoDaro, Kotdiji, Ganweriwala, Rakhigarh, and Lothal were built from mud and baked bricks. At Mohanjodaro largest mud:baked brick proportion was found (Possehl 2002). Baked bricks usage succeeded mud bricks usage and continue when baked bricks are not used anymore (Datta, 2001; Chattopadhyaya, 1996). Dholavira is the only large city built completely from mud bricks(Bisht,1982:Possehl,2000), most villages and towns in the IVC were built from stones and mud bricks (Datta, 2001; Chattopadhyaya, 1996). Jalilpur, Kalibangan, and Chanhudaro were built from baked bricks and were few of the exceptions (Mughal, 1970; Joshi et al., 1984; Flam, 1981).

No preceding mud bricks for this phase were found in Chahundaro thus keeping him out of the list. A large part of archaeological pieces of evidencehas been constituted in bricks of the Indus Valley Civilization. A lot of information about the number and geographical distribution of settlements, about dimensions and density of settlements, and the relation between urban and rural areas. More than this these bricks provide information about the systematic and illustrative functions of ancient societies (Kenoyer,2006). The emergence of traditions of Indus Valley civilization after 7000 BC was laid because of Brickwork. Baked bricks were manufactured from the end of early of the late phase that was of 1500 years, played the predominant role. Why this shift to and away from bricks? Although baked bricks are superior technology to sun-dried bricks, most of the building constructions continued with mud bricks. Baked bricks were used where improved strength was required (Possehl, 2002). Baked bricks were water-resistant and were least affected by long-term water exposure. Thus, they became the key factor in the expansion of Harrapan Villages and Cities into the Punjab flood plains. Their sustained establishment in the flooding zones of the river plains was facilitated by baked brick technology. The flood protection structures were found around Harrapa and Mohanjodaro resembled the important function of baked bricks (Kenoyer, 1998). The importance of baked-brick technology for flood protection is demonstrated by baked brick usage for all buildings in flood-vulnerable cities like Chahundaro. Generally, Urbanism likely for all big cities of the mature phase (Dholavira, Chahundaro, and Mohanjodaro are exceptions) were built with a combination of sundried and baked bricks. They were also used for the foundations of houses and lining of sewage systems. In the four largest cities Mohenjodaro, Harrapa, Ganweriwala, Rakhigarhi baked bricks were used to make city walls and citadels. The chronological distribution of several chronological sites having used bricks resembled four different vital orders: (1) a steady and slow increase characterizes the Neolithic periods, (2) a sudden doubling and steep increase of brick sites is typical for the Early Harappan phase; this (3) levels out during the Mature phase before it is (4) reversed by a strong decrease during the Late and post-Harappan phases. During the mature phase only, baked bricks were investigated at most of the sites, although they declined during the later phases. The baked brick technology, once invented, required skilled labor, standards, and natural resources.

All these were available within the IVC during the mature phase. There is no evidence of scarcity of natural resources for baked brick production. In the river plains of Punjab and Sindh, fine silts were abundant to be found. The gallery forests along the perennial rivers provided an ample and steady supply offer wood. Meher-Homji (1973) estimated that only 200 hectares of riverine forest were required to supply baked bricks that were long enough to support the large city of Mohenjo-Daro for 100 years. The long-standing and featured trademark of Harrapan masonry was the most important requirement. the typical ratio of 4:2:1 (length to width to height) of Indus Valley bricks the “Indus proportion” (Possehl 2002). The use of standardized molds ensured cohesion to this ratio. different brick ratios (3:2:1) were used in some cities like Kalibangan instead of the typical Harappan ratio(Mcintosh, 2007). brick dimensions diverged away from the Indus proportion during the late phase (Datta, 2001; Mcintosh, 2007). In the craftsmen’s tradition and in social norms, the standards were preserved beyond the molds. The changed social norm or to the lack of craftsmen to keep up the traditional brick manufacturing deviated from standard in the late phase. The craftsmanship and knowledge needed to choose the correct silts mix the appropriate quantities of silts and water, and the temperature and roasting time to produce maximum strength bricks is the third requirement of skilled labor. Did craftsmen and their skills migrate? There is no direct evidence. Evidence for increased need of brick producers in the south of the IVC was supposed because of the late appearance of bricks in the Gujarat sites, predominantly Lothal after 2200 BC (Rao, 1965), while at the same time the size of Harappa already started to decrease. In Susa eastern Gulf of Persia, baked bricks were used in monuments. Historically bricks were manufactured by soft mud process that is an ancient process in which moist clay is pressed into simple rectangular molds by hands. The mold was dipped in water before being filled to keep the sticky clay from sticking to the molds. This process produced a smooth, dense; surface that was known as water-struck brick. While drying the dry press process was used for the clay that shrinks. The sift mud process gave the pathway to the development of brick manufacturing. Clay mixed was placed in steel molds and pressed by a machine. The ancient civilians recognized the fired brick as more durable and weathering resistance. Therefore, the fired brick was more favorable than the sun-dried brick. The ancient fired brick was manufactured by forming the mixed clay in molds and then bricks were fired by assembling them in a loose array called clamp covering.  The clamp was covered with soil or clay and building a wood fire under the clamp and maintained the fire for several days.

Clay bricks

The use of bricks of this type is found in both early and adult Harappan times. From sand, we get clay bricks of long size, whose size is 72x 36x 12 cm and they were used to build walls and houses. The sand bricks are of the largest size found in all the Harappan sites. If we talk about Lothal, here the size of small bricks made for houses was 14x12x7 and the size of big bricks used for big houses and city walls was 40x20x10. Here we find bricks of size 11 x 5.5 x 1.5 and 12 x 6 x 3 and 15 x 8 x 3.5 inches which were used in the Granary area. 10x9x4 and 15x9x3 were often used in cemeteries. Fortifications use bricks measuring 40 by 20 by 10 inches. Bricks found from Surkotada and Mohenjodaro appear to be of similar size and are used for houses and fortifications.

Forged bricks

We get baked bricks mainly from big houses, drains, the port of Lothal, and baths of Mohenjodaro. Such bricks are also used for covering. Baked small bricks are available in sizes 20 X 14 X 7 CM and 24 X 12 X 7 CM. wedge-shaped bricks

Bricks of this size are mainly made from utensils made of wood. This type of circular shape is used on the inner surface of the well. The size of the bricks received from Mohenjodaro is 11.5 x 3. 75 x 2. 75 and 10.35x3.5x2.25 in size.

T shaped bricks

Such bricks are mainly found from Lothal, which were mainly used for the easy passage of water from the drains.

Brick Bonding Techniques

The height of the walls of Mohenjodaro and Harappa is very high. We find the best example of its height in the bonding technique of bricks placed in a well. Various methods of tying bricks are mentioned like some foreign methods Flemish bond, American bond, Heading bond, Stress bond, and Stack bond, etc.

The use of English bonds is found mainly in Harappan times.

English Bond

The English bond technique was commonly used by the Harappans. The pattern in this type of bonding was like those headers and stretcher lay on alternate sides thus was a very strong bond. The English bond technique was used in the building of a great bath at Mohenjodaro. The walls build by this technique were stronger and more durable as they can even uphold the pressure of even two-story buildings. In Lothal fortification walls this English bond technique was used. Although the type of brick bond and mortar in laying was different but English bond technique was most common in all Harappan sites. It seems that the English-Bond was prescribed by the governmental authority of the Harappan people, so it was used widely.

Flemish Bond

The Flemish Bond was the second important brick bond used by the Harappan people at their different sites. In this type of bonding technique headers and stretchers lay alternatively in the same course. In this type of bond, each header was centralized over each underlying stretcher. This type of bond was weaker than the English bond. The Flemish Bond was occasionally seen at Mohenjodaro. The wall of a kitchen and a room in a house in DK Area at Mojenjodaro the Flemish Bond was used.

Stretcher Bond

This type of bonding technique was adopted in a few houses at Lothal and Mohenjodaro. In this type of bond, all the bricks of the wall are laid as a stretcher in every course. To break the continuity of vertical joints in alternative courses the start was done with half bats. At Lothal in the construction of mud-brick platforms in the Acropolis area and the platform of a warehouse, the stretcher Bond was also used by the Harappan people.

Header Bond

In this type of bond, all the bricks were laid as headers in every course of a wall. Every header in each course lies centrally over every header of the underlying course. It was also a less strong bond. The walls of some houses in Block G at Lothal were constructed in the Header Bond technique.

American Bond

The American Bonding technique was also used by the Harappan. In this type of bond, a course of the header was laid after every 5 or 7 courses of the stretcher. At some places, the eastern wall of a house at Lothal was constructed in American Bond.

Stack Bond

In this bonding technique, the pattern is made up of stretchers with each stretcher centered on the stretcher below it. All joints are in vertical proposition throughout the wall. This was the weakest bond in comparison with other bonds used. It was used for decorative purposes. The mud-brick platform of the houses at Lothal was constructed with the help of this bonding technique.

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